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<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Atomorbital</span></h1>
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<p>Ein <b>Atomorbital</b> (zu <span style="font-style:normal;font-weight:normal"><a href="Englische_Sprache" title="Englische Sprache">englisch</a></span> <span lang="en-Latn" style="font-style:italic">atomic orbital</span>) ist in den <a href="Quantenmechanik" title="Quantenmechanik">quantenmechanischen</a> Modellen der <a href="Atom" title="Atom">Atome</a> die räumliche <a href="Wellenfunktion" title="Wellenfunktion">Wellenfunktion</a> eines einzelnen <a href="Elektron" title="Elektron">Elektrons</a> in einem <a href="Quantenmechanik#Stationäre_Zustände" title="Quantenmechanik">quantenmechanischen Zustand</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> meist in einem stationären Zustand. Sein <a href="Formelzeichen" title="Formelzeichen">Formelzeichen</a> ist meist <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \varphi }">
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<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>φ<!-- φ --></mi>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \varphi }</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/33ee699558d09cf9d653f6351f9fda0b2f4aaa3e.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:1.52ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \varphi }" loading="lazy"></span> (kleines <a href="Phi" title="Phi">Phi</a>) oder <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \psi }">
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<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>ψ<!-- ψ --></mi>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \psi }</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/45e5789e5d9c8f7c79744f43ecaaf8ba42a8553a.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.513ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \psi }" loading="lazy"></span> (kleines <a href="Psi_(Buchstabe)" title="Psi (Buchstabe)">Psi</a>). Das <a href="Betragsfunktion" title="Betragsfunktion">Betrags</a>quadrat <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle |\psi ({\vec {r}})|^{2}}">
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<mi>ψ<!-- ψ --></mi>
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<mi>r</mi>
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<mn>2</mn>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle |\psi ({\vec {r}})|^{2}}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/1f0223d0e4b6c5eaf1357117b8d140ef2b4f2439.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:6.893ex; height:3.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle |\psi ({\vec {r}})|^{2}}" loading="lazy"></span> als <a href="Dichtefunktion" title="Dichtefunktion">Dichtefunktion</a> wird interpretiert als die räumliche Verteilung der <a href="Aufenthaltswahrscheinlichkeit" title="Aufenthaltswahrscheinlichkeit">Aufenthaltswahrscheinlichkeit</a>, mit der das Elektron am Ort <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\vec {r}}=(x,y,z)}">
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\vec {r}}=(x,y,z)}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/5fe5622ace035bf6747042a78d531deacf8d81a6.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:11.772ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\vec {r}}=(x,y,z)}" loading="lazy"></span> gefunden werden kann (<a href="Bornsche_Wahrscheinlichkeitsinterpretation" title="Bornsche Wahrscheinlichkeitsinterpretation">Bornsche Wahrscheinlichkeitsinterpretation</a> der Quantenmechanik). Zusammen mit der Angabe, ob der <a href="Spin" title="Spin">Spin</a> zu einer festen Achse oder zum <a href="Bahndrehimpuls" class="mw-redirect" title="Bahndrehimpuls">Bahndrehimpuls</a> des Elektrons parallel oder antiparallel ausgerichtet ist, beschreibt ein Orbital den Elektronenzustand vollständig.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>In den älteren <a href="Liste_der_Atommodelle" title="Liste der Atommodelle">Atommodellen</a> nach <a href="Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a> (<a href="Bohrsches_Atommodell" title="Bohrsches Atommodell">Bohrsches Atommodell</a>, 1913)<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> und <a href="Arnold_Sommerfeld" title="Arnold Sommerfeld">Arnold Sommerfeld</a> (<a href="Bohr-Sommerfeldsches_Atommodell" class="mw-redirect" title="Bohr-Sommerfeldsches Atommodell">Bohr-Sommerfeldsches Atommodell</a>, 1916)<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> beschreibt ein Orbital eine genaue, durch die <a href="Quantisierung_(Physik)" title="Quantisierung (Physik)">Quantisierungsregeln</a> ausgewählte Elektronenbahn. Diese Vorstellung wurde in der Quantenmechanik zugunsten einer diffusen Verteilung der Aufenthaltswahrscheinlichkeit des Elektrons aufgegeben. Das quantenmechanische Atomorbital erstreckt sich für gebundene Elektronen vom <a href="Atomkern" title="Atomkern">Atomkern</a> im Zentrum nach außen bis ins Unendliche, wobei die Aufenthaltswahrscheinlichkeit außerhalb weniger 0,1 nm typischerweise sehr klein ist und für größere Abstände <a href="Asymptotisch" class="mw-redirect" title="Asymptotisch">asymptotisch</a> weiter gegen null geht.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Der wahrscheinlichste Abstand vom Atomkern ist für das innerste Orbital gleich dem Radius der 1. Bohrschen Kreisbahn.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Anschaulich stellt man ein Orbital gewöhnlich durch die Oberfläche des kleinstmöglichen Volumens dar, in dessen Inneren sich das Elektron mit großer Wahrscheinlichkeit aufhält.<sup id="cite_ref-Haken172_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haken172-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Man erhält damit Körper, die ungefähr der Größe und Form der Atome entsprechen, wie sie sich in chemischen <a href="Molek%C3%BCl" title="Molekül">Molekülen</a>, <a href="Kondensierte_Materie" title="Kondensierte Materie">kondensierter Materie</a> und der <a href="Kinetische_Gastheorie" title="Kinetische Gastheorie">kinetischen Gastheorie</a> bemerkbar machen.
</p><p>Die gebräuchlichsten Atomorbitale sind die, die sich für das einzige Elektron des Wasserstoffatoms als Lösungen der <a href="Schr%C3%B6dingergleichung" title="Schrödingergleichung">Schrödingergleichung</a> des <a href="Wasserstoffproblem" class="mw-redirect" title="Wasserstoffproblem">Wasserstoffproblems</a> ergeben und 1926 erstmals veröffentlicht wurden. Sie haben verschiedene Formen, die mit <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \psi _{nlm_{l}}({\vec {r}})}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>ψ<!-- ψ --></mi>
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<mi>n</mi>
<mi>l</mi>
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<mi>m</mi>
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<mi>l</mi>
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</msub>
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<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \psi _{nlm_{l}}({\vec {r}})}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/72a980efecc15a9b67c353987f5855c31291e24c.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:8.259ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \psi _{nlm_{l}}({\vec {r}})}" loading="lazy"></span> bezeichnet werden, wobei der untere Index aus der Haupt<a href="Quantenzahl" title="Quantenzahl">quantenzahl</a>&nbsp;<span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n,}">
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<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>n</mi>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n,}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/397bfafc701afdf14c2743278a097f6f2957eabb.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.042ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n,}" loading="lazy"></span> der Bahndrehimpulsquantenzahl&nbsp;<span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle l}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
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<mi>l</mi>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle l}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/829091f745070b9eb97a80244129025440a1cfac.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.693ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle l}" loading="lazy"></span> und der magnetischen Quantenzahl&nbsp;<span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle m_{l}}">
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<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>m</mi>
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<mi>l</mi>
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</msub>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle m_{l}}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a3f945c408d692391284a629617fe0b301776222.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.763ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle m_{l}}" loading="lazy"></span> besteht.<sup id="cite_ref-Kuypers277_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kuypers277-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Im <b>Orbitalmodell</b> für Atome mit mehreren Elektronen nimmt man an, dass die Elektronen sich unter Berücksichtigung des <a href="Pauli-Prinzip" title="Pauli-Prinzip">Pauli-Prinzips</a> auf die Orbitale verteilen.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ein solcher Zustand heißt <a href="Elektronenkonfiguration" title="Elektronenkonfiguration">Elektronenkonfiguration</a> und stellt oft eine brauchbare <a href="Approximation#Funktionen" title="Approximation">Näherung</a> für die Struktur der <a href="Atomh%C3%BClle" title="Atomhülle">Atomhülle</a> dar, obwohl diese durch zusätzliche Elektronenkorrelationen noch komplizierter ist.
</p><p>Zur Beschreibung von Elektronen in Molekülen werden <a href="Molek%C3%BClorbital" class="mw-redirect" title="Molekülorbital">Molekülorbitale</a> als <a href="Linearkombination" title="Linearkombination">Linearkombination</a> von Atomorbitalen gebildet.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Elektronen in Festkörpern werden durch Orbitale beschrieben, die die Form von <a href="Blochwellenfunktion" class="mw-redirect" title="Blochwellenfunktion">Blochwellenfunktionen</a> haben.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>In diesem Artikel wird nur auf gebundene Elektronen in Atomen eingegangen. Eine Vereinfachung des Orbitalmodells ist das <a href="Schalenmodell_(Atomphysik)" title="Schalenmodell (Atomphysik)">Schalenmodell</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Darstellung">Darstellung</h2></div>

<p>Da die Wellenfunktion <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Psi }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi mathvariant="normal">Ψ<!-- Ψ --></mi>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Psi }</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f5471531a3fe80741a839bc98d49fae862a6439a.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.808ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \Psi }" loading="lazy"></span> von drei Variablen abhängt und im Allgemeinen komplexe Werte hat, ist eine vollständige grafische Darstellung in einer Abbildung nicht möglich. Häufig zeigen Bilder von Orbitalen eine Darstellung der Wahrscheinlichkeitsdichte <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle |\Psi ({\vec {r}})|^{2}}">
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle |\Psi ({\vec {r}})|^{2}}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/76d4a6aca0b254b2d287d0d6fd5946856b6254f7.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:7.188ex; height:3.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle |\Psi ({\vec {r}})|^{2}}" loading="lazy"></span>. Dabei wird die Wahrscheinlichkeitsdichte z.&nbsp;B. als <a href="Punktwolke" title="Punktwolke">Punktwolke</a> visualisiert: Viele dicht liegende Punkte deuten große Wahrscheinlichkeitsdichte an, während in Gebieten geringer Wahrscheinlichkeitsdichte wenige Punkte eingezeichnet werden.<sup id="cite_ref-Haken172_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haken172-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Da die Wahrscheinlichkeitsdichte sich im Prinzip ins Unendliche erstreckt, lässt sich keine äußere Begrenzung des Orbitals angeben. Stattdessen kann man <a href="Isofl%C3%A4che" title="Isofläche">Isoflächen</a> gleicher Wahrscheinlichkeitsdichte zeichnen, die durch
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\text{const}}=|\Psi ({\vec {r}})|^{2}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mtext>const</mtext>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo stretchy="false">|</mo>
</mrow>
<mi mathvariant="normal">Ψ<!-- Ψ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>r</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">→<!-- → --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo stretchy="false">|</mo>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\text{const}}=|\Psi ({\vec {r}})|^{2}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/ade98f184a38d4a0243756255b9b73e897a25550.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:15.595ex; height:3.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\text{const}}=|\Psi ({\vec {r}})|^{2}}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>definiert sind. Häufig wird die Konstante so gewählt, dass die Wahrscheinlichkeit, das Elektron in dem von der Isofläche umschlossenen Raum zu finden, 90&nbsp;% beträgt. Durch Abtasten verschiedener Winkel <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \theta ,\phi }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>θ<!-- θ --></mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>ϕ<!-- ϕ --></mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \theta ,\phi }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/460f850fadee91c2f107605ae351dc04dc4dc544.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.51ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \theta ,\phi }" loading="lazy"></span> erfährt man etwas über die Form der Isofläche und somit etwas über die „Form des Orbitals“. Wie vom Wasserstoffatom bekannt ist, haben die Eigenfunktionen <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Psi ({\vec {r}})}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi mathvariant="normal">Ψ<!-- Ψ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>r</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">→<!-- → --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Psi ({\vec {r}})}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/860ed8dcca03bb55dda0fe92c92a079038be797b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:4.841ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \Psi ({\vec {r}})}" loading="lazy"></span> der <a href="Station%C3%A4re_Schr%C3%B6dingergleichung" class="mw-redirect" title="Stationäre Schrödingergleichung">stationären Schrödingergleichung</a> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle H\Psi ({\vec {r}})=E\Psi ({\vec {r}})}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>H</mi>
<mi mathvariant="normal">Ψ<!-- Ψ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>r</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">→<!-- → --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>E</mi>
<mi mathvariant="normal">Ψ<!-- Ψ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>r</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">→<!-- → --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle H\Psi ({\vec {r}})=E\Psi ({\vec {r}})}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/b829d48bd68d1a95aaf4f4bc54682e8e8b0a5411.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:16.619ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle H\Psi ({\vec {r}})=E\Psi ({\vec {r}})}" loading="lazy"></span> einen Radialanteil <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle R_{nl}(r)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>R</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>n</mi>
<mi>l</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>r</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle R_{nl}(r)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a6a373dc45077d5d9fde7ef5b8bc5eaecce554e0.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:6.331ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle R_{nl}(r)}" loading="lazy"></span> und einen Winkelanteil <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Y_{l}^{m}(\theta ,\phi )}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msubsup>
<mi>Y</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>l</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>m</mi>
</mrow>
</msubsup>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>θ<!-- θ --></mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>ϕ<!-- ϕ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Y_{l}^{m}(\theta ,\phi )}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/ea58b8719f9025fa0d8eaf6f8be7adc95762f280.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:8.894ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle Y_{l}^{m}(\theta ,\phi )}" loading="lazy"></span>:<sup id="cite_ref-Kuypers277_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kuypers277-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Psi ({\vec {r}})=R_{nl}(r)Y_{l}^{m}(\theta ,\phi )}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi mathvariant="normal">Ψ<!-- Ψ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>r</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">→<!-- → --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<msub>
<mi>R</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>n</mi>
<mi>l</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>r</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<msubsup>
<mi>Y</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>l</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>m</mi>
</mrow>
</msubsup>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>θ<!-- θ --></mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>ϕ<!-- ϕ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Psi ({\vec {r}})=R_{nl}(r)Y_{l}^{m}(\theta ,\phi )}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/1a1f254e36cd54848a4b2de4cd3acc2eea471794.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:23.164ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \Psi ({\vec {r}})=R_{nl}(r)Y_{l}^{m}(\theta ,\phi )}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>Da die Winkelabhängigkeit durch eine universelle Kugelflächenfunktion <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Y_{l}^{m}(\theta ,\phi )}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msubsup>
<mi>Y</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>l</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>m</mi>
</mrow>
</msubsup>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>θ<!-- θ --></mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>ϕ<!-- ϕ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Y_{l}^{m}(\theta ,\phi )}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/ea58b8719f9025fa0d8eaf6f8be7adc95762f280.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:8.894ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle Y_{l}^{m}(\theta ,\phi )}" loading="lazy"></span> gegeben ist, steckt die jeweils spezifische Information im Radialanteil <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle R_{nl}(r)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>R</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>n</mi>
<mi>l</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>r</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle R_{nl}(r)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a6a373dc45077d5d9fde7ef5b8bc5eaecce554e0.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:6.331ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle R_{nl}(r)}" loading="lazy"></span>, der als reellwertige Funktion einer reellen Variablen grafisch dargestellt werden kann.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Nicht selten wird bei der Darstellung einer Isofläche von <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle |\Psi ({\vec {r}})|^{2}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo stretchy="false">|</mo>
</mrow>
<mi mathvariant="normal">Ψ<!-- Ψ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>r</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">→<!-- → --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo stretchy="false">|</mo>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle |\Psi ({\vec {r}})|^{2}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/76d4a6aca0b254b2d287d0d6fd5946856b6254f7.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:7.188ex; height:3.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle |\Psi ({\vec {r}})|^{2}}" loading="lazy"></span> die Fläche entsprechend dem <a href="Komplexe_Zahl#Darstellung_von_komplexen_Zahlen_in_der_komplexen_Zahlenebene" title="Komplexe Zahl">komplexen Argument</a> von <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Psi ({\vec {r}})}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi mathvariant="normal">Ψ<!-- Ψ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>r</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">→<!-- → --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Psi ({\vec {r}})}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/860ed8dcca03bb55dda0fe92c92a079038be797b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:4.841ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \Psi ({\vec {r}})}" loading="lazy"></span> koloriert (wie in dem Bild des p-Orbitals).
</p><p>Eine einfache Art der schematischen Darstellung der Besetzung von Atomorbitalen ist die <a href="Pauling-Schreibweise" title="Pauling-Schreibweise">Pauling-Schreibweise</a>.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Klassifikation">Klassifikation</h2></div>
<p>Atomorbitale können durch drei Quantenzahlen <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n,l,m_{l}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>n</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>l</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<msub>
<mi>m</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>l</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n,l,m_{l}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/329258dfe3841b3bfe476dfe537c73b6b030e926.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:6.919ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n,l,m_{l}}" loading="lazy"></span> festgelegt werden und bieten dann Platz für zwei Elektronen mit entgegengesetztem <a href="Spin" title="Spin">Spin</a>. Alternativ können Atomorbitale durch vier <a href="Quantenzahl" title="Quantenzahl">Quantenzahlen</a> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n,l,j,m_{j}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>n</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>l</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>j</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<msub>
<mi>m</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>j</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n,l,j,m_{j}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/6ad015e5da650b3bb3e9236699b2626eecfe6bf4.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:9.098ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n,l,j,m_{j}}" loading="lazy"></span> festgelegt werden und bieten dann Platz für nur jeweils ein Elektron.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hauptquantenzahl_n:_Schale">Hauptquantenzahl <i>n</i>: Schale</h3></div>
<p>Die Hauptquantenzahl <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n=1,2,3\dotsc }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>n</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<mo>,</mo>
<mn>2</mn>
<mo>,</mo>
<mn>3</mn>
<mo>…<!-- … --></mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n=1,2,3\dotsc }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/463c54aa580aa88df1b3ac5e9afbba8ff498dabe.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:13.159ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n=1,2,3\dotsc }" loading="lazy"></span> bezeichnet die <a href="Schalenmodell_(Atomphysik)" title="Schalenmodell (Atomphysik)">Schale</a> (Bezeichnung auch K-Schale, L-Schale, M-Schale&nbsp;…), zu der das Orbital gehört.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Im Bohrschen Atommodell gibt <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>n</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a601995d55609f2d9f5e233e36fbe9ea26011b3b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.395ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n}" loading="lazy"></span> das <a href="Energieniveau" title="Energieniveau">Energieniveau</a> an, beginnend mit dem tiefsten, dem <a href="Grundzustand" title="Grundzustand">Grundzustand</a> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n=1.}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>n</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>1.</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n=1.}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/04d74ade48a04cf5d7a4d8a0f0a94a0bf6050973.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:6.302ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n=1.}" loading="lazy"></span>
</p><p>Als ungefähre Regel gilt: Je größer <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>n</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a601995d55609f2d9f5e233e36fbe9ea26011b3b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.395ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n}" loading="lazy"></span>, desto geringer die <a href="Bindungsenergie" title="Bindungsenergie">Bindungsenergie</a> des Elektrons und damit desto größer die Wahrscheinlichkeit, das Elektron weiter entfernt vom Atomkern zu finden. Das gilt auch für Atome mit mehreren Elektronen. Bei Wechselwirkungen zwischen Atomen, die sich nahe kommen, (wie <a href="Sto%C3%9F_(Physik)" title="Stoß (Physik)">Stößen</a> von Gasmolekülen, Raumerfüllung in kondensierter Materie, <a href="Chemische_Bindung" title="Chemische Bindung">chemischen Bindungen</a>) spielen deshalb die Elektronen mit der größten Hauptquantenzahl die wichtigste Rolle (die Elektronen der <a href="Valenzschale" title="Valenzschale">Valenzschale</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Haken175_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haken175-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Die Anzahl der <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle (nlm_{l})}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>n</mi>
<mi>l</mi>
<msub>
<mi>m</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>l</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle (nlm_{l})}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/18b1829d392d4d6a83daa15853e48ac5a906fb3f.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:6.66ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle (nlm_{l})}" loading="lazy"></span>-Orbitale in einer Schale ergibt sich zu <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n^{2}.}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mi>n</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>.</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n^{2}.}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/4846c73ba44c6ffdc37db7268c4f0d161b88dbe1.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:3.096ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n^{2}.}" loading="lazy"></span><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unter Berücksichtigung des <a href="Pauli-Prinzip" title="Pauli-Prinzip">Pauli-Prinzips</a> kann die Schale mit maximal <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 2\cdot n^{2}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mn>2</mn>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<msup>
<mi>n</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 2\cdot n^{2}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/867cc403af590c4a97bbcc93f11d9bf54a208112.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:5.291ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 2\cdot n^{2}}" loading="lazy"></span> Elektronen besetzt werden, dann ist sie <i>abgeschlossen.</i> Die entsprechenden Atome gehören zu den <a href="Edelgas" class="mw-redirect" title="Edelgas">Edelgasen</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Haken175_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haken175-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neben-_oder_Bahndrehimpuls-Quantenzahl_l">Neben- oder Bahndrehimpuls-Quantenzahl <i>l</i></h3></div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Form">Form</h4></div>
<p>Die Neben- oder Bahndrehimpulsquantenzahl <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle l=0,1,2\dotsc ,(n-1)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>l</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
<mo>,</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<mo>,</mo>
<mn>2</mn>
<mo>…<!-- … --></mo>
<mo>,</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>n</mi>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle l=0,1,2\dotsc ,(n-1)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/d781b69111784a2499c2df968606ce3e611965e4.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:21.085ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle l=0,1,2\dotsc ,(n-1)}" loading="lazy"></span> innerhalb einer Schale beschreibt den Betrag <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle |{\vec {l}}|=\hbar \cdot {\sqrt {l(l+1)}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo stretchy="false">|</mo>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>l</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">→<!-- → --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo stretchy="false">|</mo>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi class="MJX-variant">ℏ<!-- ℏ --></mi>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<msqrt>
<mi>l</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>l</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</msqrt>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle |{\vec {l}}|=\hbar \cdot {\sqrt {l(l+1)}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/b93c65e73315efc7ecb9b251c8566b00095bda7e.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:18.188ex; height:4.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle |{\vec {l}}|=\hbar \cdot {\sqrt {l(l+1)}}}" loading="lazy"></span> des <a href="Bahndrehimpuls" class="mw-redirect" title="Bahndrehimpuls">Bahndrehimpulses</a> des Elektrons.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mit der Quantenzahl <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle m_{l}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>m</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>l</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle m_{l}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a3f945c408d692391284a629617fe0b301776222.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.763ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle m_{l}}" loading="lazy"></span> zusammen wird damit die winkelabhängige „Form“ des Orbitals festgelegt. Sie ist für alle Hauptquantenzahlen (beachte <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n>l}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>n</mi>
<mo>&gt;</mo>
<mi>l</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n&gt;l}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/473353e72ce0efcd4ffffbf91cf4d993792c5771.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:5.186ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n>l}" loading="lazy"></span>) dieselbe.
</p><p>Statt der Ziffern <i>0, 1, 2&nbsp;…</i> wird die Nebenquantenzahl in der Literatur meist durch die Buchstaben <i>s, p, d, f&nbsp;…</i> bezeichnet, abgeleitet von den ursprünglich gebrauchten Bezeichnungen <i>„sharp, principal, diffuse, fundamental“</i> für die korrespondierenden <a href="Spektrallinien" class="mw-redirect" title="Spektrallinien">Spektrallinien</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> diese konkrete Bedeutung ist seit langem unwesentlich geworden:
</p>
<table class="wikitable hintergrundfarbe-basis">

<tbody><tr>
<th><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle p_{z}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>p</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>z</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle p_{z}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/1dbd3c1a6173a7974e0095301da94447c5f67657.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; margin-left: -0.089ex; width:2.261ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle p_{z}}" loading="lazy"></span>-Orbital
</th>
<th><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle d}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>d</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle d}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/e85ff03cbe0c7341af6b982e47e9f90d235c66ab.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.216ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle d}" loading="lazy"></span>-Orbitale
</th>
<th><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 4p}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mn>4</mn>
<mi>p</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 4p}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f020e39692665a10be8cca01d62d74df15862e36.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.332ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 4p}" loading="lazy"></span>-Orbital
</th></tr>
<tr>
<td>
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Vereinfachte Form eines p-Orbitals <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle (l=1)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>l</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle (l=1)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/429da5e6b9ed06ae2304ee5ecf19b0785323a0d3.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:6.764ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle (l=1)}" loading="lazy"></span>.<br>Die Färbung steht für das Vorzeichen der Wellenfunktion. Dargestellt ist eine Isofläche von <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle |\Psi ({\vec {r}})|^{2}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo stretchy="false">|</mo>
</mrow>
<mi mathvariant="normal">Ψ<!-- Ψ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>r</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">→<!-- → --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo stretchy="false">|</mo>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle |\Psi ({\vec {r}})|^{2}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/76d4a6aca0b254b2d287d0d6fd5946856b6254f7.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:7.188ex; height:3.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle |\Psi ({\vec {r}})|^{2}}" loading="lazy"></span>.
</td>
<td>Vereinfachte Formen der verschiedenen d-Orbitale (jeweils <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle l=2}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>l</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>2</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle l=2}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/568d606c605ed04ee4beb2bc2d3bed232e0b07f0.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:4.954ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle l=2}" loading="lazy"></span>). Für die jeweiligen Orbitale ist eine Isofläche der Wahrscheinlichkeitsdichte <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle |\Psi ({\vec {r}})|^{2}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo stretchy="false">|</mo>
</mrow>
<mi mathvariant="normal">Ψ<!-- Ψ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>r</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">→<!-- → --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo stretchy="false">|</mo>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle |\Psi ({\vec {r}})|^{2}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/76d4a6aca0b254b2d287d0d6fd5946856b6254f7.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:7.188ex; height:3.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle |\Psi ({\vec {r}})|^{2}}" loading="lazy"></span> dargestellt.
</td>
<td>Form eines 4p-Orbitals <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle (l=1,\,m_{x}=0)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>l</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<mo>,</mo>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<msub>
<mi>m</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>x</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle (l=1,\,m_{x}=0)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/15a00f7bd8869cf26ce48fe9b681da2f59f51b69.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:15.658ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle (l=1,\,m_{x}=0)}" loading="lazy"></span>.<br>Die Färbung steht für das Vorzeichen der Wellenfunktion.
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table class="wikitable centered" style="text-align:center">

<tbody><tr>
<th>Name</th>
<th>ehemalige Bedeutung</th>
<th>Nebenquantenzahl</th>
<th>Form</th>
<th>Anzahl <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 2l+1}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mn>2</mn>
<mi>l</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 2l+1}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/ad6cc29a87d7b25ec1f294612477d5a38f59c09a.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:5.859ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 2l+1}" loading="lazy"></span>
</th></tr>
<tr>
<td>s-Orbital</td>
<td><i><b>s</b>harp</i></td>
<td><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \,l=0}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mi>l</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \,l=0}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/7545b1fba1c8729ad64200ba5778099c8bf75ee1.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:5.341ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \,l=0}" loading="lazy"></span></td>
<td><a href="Kugelsymmetrisch" class="mw-redirect" title="Kugelsymmetrisch">kugelsymmetrisch</a></td>
<td><span style="visibility:hidden;">0</span>1
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>p-Orbital</td>
<td><i><b>p</b>rincipal</i></td>
<td><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \,l=1}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mi>l</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \,l=1}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/907c456f4d1dd83f469889da6e97f9bcc46e5b0e.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:5.341ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \,l=1}" loading="lazy"></span></td>
<td><a href="Hantel" title="Hantel">hantel</a>förmig</td>
<td><span style="visibility:hidden;">000</span>3<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r261937660">
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</style>&nbsp;<span class="fussnoten-etui reference"><sup class="fussnoten-marke" data-annotationpair-m="A2">A2</sup></span>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>d-Orbital</td>
<td><i><b>d</b>iffuse</i></td>
<td><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \,l=2}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mi>l</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>2</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \,l=2}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/d2842947a412c2e98b7ea974f8d6c5dce0bbbfbc.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:5.341ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \,l=2}" loading="lazy"></span></td>
<td>gekreuzte Doppelhantel</td>
<td><span style="visibility:hidden;">0</span>5
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>f-Orbital</td>
<td><i><b>f</b>undamental</i></td>
<td><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \,l=3}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mi>l</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>3</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \,l=3}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/58e7528ca2252a86826f5f8e1bc00df24217d483.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:5.341ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \,l=3}" loading="lazy"></span></td>
<td><a href="Rosette_(Ornamentik)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rosette (Ornamentik)">rosetten</a>förmig</td>
<td><span style="visibility:hidden;">0</span>7
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>g-Orbital&nbsp;<span class="fussnoten-etui reference"><sup class="fussnoten-marke" data-annotationpair-m="A1">A1</sup></span></td>
<td>(alphabetische Fortsetzung)</td>
<td><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \,l=4}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mi>l</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>4</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \,l=4}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/47f7e389527c8b2fe40bce2ad33c6f7c596dcddc.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:5.341ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \,l=4}" loading="lazy"></span></td>
<td>rosettenförmig</td>
<td><span style="visibility:hidden;">0</span>9
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>h-Orbital&nbsp;<span class="fussnoten-etui reference"><sup class="fussnoten-marke" data-annotationpair-m="A1">A1</sup></span></td>
<td>(alphabetische Fortsetzung)</td>
<td><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \,l=5}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mi>l</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>5</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \,l=5}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/29c617cac1ee5c0c5079858e99c5bc1456795de1.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:5.341ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \,l=5}" loading="lazy"></span></td>
<td>rosettenförmig</td>
<td>11
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<p><b>Anmerkungen:</b>
</p>
<div class="fussnoten-box">
<div class="fussnoten-linie" aria-hidden="true" role="presentation"></div>
<div class="fussnoten-block"><div class="fussnoten-inhalt references"><sup class="fussnoten-marke mw-cite-backlink" data-annotationpair-a="A1">A1</sup>&nbsp;<div class="reference-text">Kann als <a href="Angeregter_Zustand" title="Angeregter Zustand">angeregter Zustand</a> vorkommen. Für den <a href="Grundzustand" title="Grundzustand">Grundzustand</a> wird es theoretisch erst für Atome ab der <a href="Unbiunium" title="Unbiunium">Ordnungszahl 121</a> erwartet.</div></div></div>
<div class="fussnoten-block"><div class="fussnoten-inhalt references"><sup class="fussnoten-marke mw-cite-backlink" data-annotationpair-a="A2">A2</sup>&nbsp;<div class="reference-text">Entsprechend den drei Raumachsen.</div></div></div>
</div>
<p>Die Orbitale charakterisieren streng genommen nur die stationären <a href="Materiewelle" title="Materiewelle">Elektronen-Wellen</a> in Systemen mit nur einem Elektron (wie z.&nbsp;B. <a href="Wasserstoff" title="Wasserstoff">Wasserstoffatom</a>&nbsp;H, <a href="Helium" title="Helium">Heliumion</a>&nbsp;He<sup>+</sup>, <a href="Lithium" title="Lithium">Lithiumion</a>&nbsp;Li<sup>2+</sup> usw.). Da die Form der Orbitale auch in Mehrelektronensystemen in etwa erhalten bleibt, reicht ihre Kenntnis aus, um viele qualitative Fragen zur chemischen Bindung und zum Aufbau von Stoffen zu beantworten.
</p><p>Dabei ist zu beachten, dass die in der Literatur dargestellten Orbitale zuweilen <i>nicht</i> die <a href="Eigenzustand" title="Eigenzustand">Eigenzustände</a> zur magnetischen Quantenzahl <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle m_{l}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>m</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>l</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle m_{l}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a3f945c408d692391284a629617fe0b301776222.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.763ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle m_{l}}" loading="lazy"></span> der z-Komponente des <a href="Drehimpulsoperator" class="mw-redirect" title="Drehimpulsoperator">Drehimpulsoperators</a> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\hat {l}}_{z}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>l</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>z</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\hat {l}}_{z}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/80858792edd88b1eba41017b1e83bee5050c776d.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.358ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\hat {l}}_{z}}" loading="lazy"></span> sind. Z.&nbsp;B. wird von den p-Orbitalen nur der eine Eigenzustand für den <a href="Eigenwert" class="mw-redirect" title="Eigenwert">Eigenwert</a> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle m_{l}{\mathord {=}}0}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>m</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>l</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>=</mo>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mn>0</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle m_{l}{\mathord {=}}0}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/e47c5d8f721e0a2bf174d753b59b932428f5965f.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:5.733ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle m_{l}{\mathord {=}}0}" loading="lazy"></span> dargestellt und als p<sub>z</sub> bezeichnet. Die mit p<sub>x</sub> und p<sub>y</sub> bezeichneten Orbitale sind jedoch <i>nicht</i> die entsprechenden Eigenzustände für <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle m_{l}=\pm 1,}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>m</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>l</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo>±<!-- ± --></mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<mo>,</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle m_{l}=\pm 1,}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/932805f89d48f991f117b1bd9cac3069d4500bb5.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:9.479ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle m_{l}=\pm 1,}" loading="lazy"></span> sondern sind deren <a href="Superposition_(Physik)" title="Superposition (Physik)">Superpositionen</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sie sind Eigenzustände zu den Operatoren <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\hat {l}}_{x}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>l</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>x</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\hat {l}}_{x}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/c0251ecf7a5f39cb2811596e6d787fc7ab7d7c28.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.528ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\hat {l}}_{x}}" loading="lazy"></span> bzw. <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\hat {l}}_{y},}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>l</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>y</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>,</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\hat {l}}_{y},}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/8c10cfddd30b3ea38ff323b1bda33995e9916cad.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:3.052ex; height:3.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\hat {l}}_{y},}" loading="lazy"></span> jeweils zu <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle m_{x,y}{\mathord {=}}0,}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>m</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>x</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>y</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>=</mo>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mn>0</mn>
<mo>,</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle m_{x,y}{\mathord {=}}0,}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/94782dbb163df22786db63542d8bb6db0e8ce92d.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:8.105ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle m_{x,y}{\mathord {=}}0,}" loading="lazy"></span> die aber nicht mit <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\hat {l}}_{z}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>l</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>z</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\hat {l}}_{z}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/80858792edd88b1eba41017b1e83bee5050c776d.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.358ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\hat {l}}_{z}}" loading="lazy"></span> kommutieren. Für die Schlussfolgerungen ist das kein Problem, solange die entsprechenden Wellenfunktionen <a href="Orthogonal" class="mw-redirect" title="Orthogonal">orthogonal</a> sind.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Unterschale">Unterschale</h4></div>
<p>Je größer <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle l}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>l</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle l}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/829091f745070b9eb97a80244129025440a1cfac.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.693ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle l}" loading="lazy"></span>, desto größer ist bei festem <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>n</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a601995d55609f2d9f5e233e36fbe9ea26011b3b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.395ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n}" loading="lazy"></span> die mittlere Entfernung des Elektrons vom Atomkern:
</p>
<ul><li>Bei <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle l=0}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>l</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle l=0}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/66485a3e3da13d226eb36a131bf1fc7e16403a5e.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:4.954ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle l=0}" loading="lazy"></span> ist das Orbital kugelförmig und hat auch bei <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle r=0}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>r</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle r=0}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/894a83e863728b4ee2e12f3a999a09f5f2bf1c89.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:5.31ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle r=0}" loading="lazy"></span>, also im Kern, eine nichtverschwindende Aufenthaltswahrscheinlichkeit.</li>
<li>Der Maximalwert <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle l=n-1}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>l</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>n</mi>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>1</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle l=n-1}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/72a1d9783b86f15f6fa8adbe80986bb4fd756859.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:9.189ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle l=n-1}" loading="lazy"></span> entspricht der Bohrschen Kreisbahn, hier konzentriert sich die Aufenthaltswahrscheinlichkeit bei dem im Bohrschen Modell berechneten Radius.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul>
<p>Da bei Atomen mit mehreren Elektronen die <a href="Inneres_Elektron" title="Inneres Elektron">inneren Elektronen</a> die anziehende <a href="Kernladung" title="Kernladung">Kernladung</a> <a href="Abschirmung_(Atomphysik)" title="Abschirmung (Atomphysik)">abschirmen</a>, verringert sich die Bindungsenergie der äußeren Elektronen.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Da die mittleren Kernabstände von der Nebenquantenzahl abhängen, ergeben sich zum gleichen <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>n</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a601995d55609f2d9f5e233e36fbe9ea26011b3b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.395ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n}" loading="lazy"></span> je nach Nebenquantenzahl verschiedene Energieniveaus innerhalb derselben Schale. Diese werden auch als <i>Unterschalen</i> der <i>Hauptschale</i> (zu festem <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>n</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a601995d55609f2d9f5e233e36fbe9ea26011b3b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.395ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n}" loading="lazy"></span>) bezeichnet.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Die Anzahl der Unterschalen je Schale ist gleich der Hauptquantenzahl <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>n</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a601995d55609f2d9f5e233e36fbe9ea26011b3b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.395ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n}" loading="lazy"></span>:
</p>
<ul><li>Für <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n=1}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>n</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n=1}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/d9ec7e1edc2e6d98f5aec2a39ae5f1c99d1e1425.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:5.656ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n=1}" loading="lazy"></span> gibt es nur die 1s-Schale.</li>
<li>Für <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n=2}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>n</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>2</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n=2}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a02c8bd752d2cc859747ca1f3a508281bdbc3b34.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:5.656ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n=2}" loading="lazy"></span> gibt es zu <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle l=0,1}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>l</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
<mo>,</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle l=0,1}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/69e1d060a5123b7115fd972c0ac874e67bf79faf.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:7.151ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle l=0,1}" loading="lazy"></span> die 2s- und die 2p-Schale.</li>
<li>Für <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n=3}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>n</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>3</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n=3}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/1c5a5a42ced00df920fad4ab2d4acdb960a4105b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:5.656ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n=3}" loading="lazy"></span> sind drei Unterschalen <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle l=0,1,2}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>l</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
<mo>,</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<mo>,</mo>
<mn>2</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle l=0,1,2}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a42e766a1314d070c8efec00a3f006e65a5a6c53.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:9.347ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle l=0,1,2}" loading="lazy"></span> möglich, die mit 3s, 3p, 3d bezeichnet werden.</li></ul>
<p>Pro Unterschale gibt es <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 2l+1}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mn>2</mn>
<mi>l</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 2l+1}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/ad6cc29a87d7b25ec1f294612477d5a38f59c09a.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:5.859ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 2l+1}" loading="lazy"></span> Orbitale (jeweils mit anderer Magnetquantenzahl <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle m_{l}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>m</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>l</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle m_{l}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a3f945c408d692391284a629617fe0b301776222.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.763ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle m_{l}}" loading="lazy"></span>, s.&nbsp;folgenden Abschnitt), was auf insgesamt <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n^{2}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mi>n</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n^{2}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/ac9810bbdafe4a6a8061338db0f74e25b7952620.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.449ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n^{2}}" loading="lazy"></span> Orbitale pro Schale führt.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Magnetquantenzahl_ml:_Neigung_des_Drehimpulsvektors">Magnetquantenzahl <i>m<sub>l</sub></i>: Neigung des Drehimpulsvektors</h3></div>
<p>Die Magnetquantenzahl
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle m_{l}=-l,-(l-1),\dotsc ,0,\dotsc ,(l-1),l}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>m</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>l</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi>l</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>l</mi>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>,</mo>
<mo>…<!-- … --></mo>
<mo>,</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
<mo>,</mo>
<mo>…<!-- … --></mo>
<mo>,</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>l</mi>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>l</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle m_{l}=-l,-(l-1),\dotsc ,0,\dotsc ,(l-1),l}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/47c44a10eff718391face41d51bf546721074300.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:37.462ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle m_{l}=-l,-(l-1),\dotsc ,0,\dotsc ,(l-1),l}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>gibt die z-Komponente <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle m_{l}\hbar }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>m</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>l</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mi class="MJX-variant">ℏ<!-- ℏ --></mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle m_{l}\hbar }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/e1c735c6c1af10c308f8e9753d69feb5726bab1e.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:4.069ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle m_{l}\hbar }" loading="lazy"></span> des Bahndrehimpulsvektors gegenüber einer (frei gewählten) z-Achse an. Das entspricht anschaulich einem Neigungswinkel
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \cos \vartheta ={\frac {m_{l}}{\sqrt {l(l+1)}}}.}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>cos</mi>
<mo>⁡<!-- ⁡ --></mo>
<mi>ϑ<!-- ϑ --></mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<msub>
<mi>m</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>l</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<msqrt>
<mi>l</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>l</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</msqrt>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<mo>.</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \cos \vartheta ={\frac {m_{l}}{\sqrt {l(l+1)}}}.}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/3225c70a4a4c56a0e3409d5943cc96d53dd1f7ea.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.171ex; width:18.976ex; height:6.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \cos \vartheta ={\frac {m_{l}}{\sqrt {l(l+1)}}}.}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<ul><li>Bei <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle m_{l}=+l\Leftrightarrow \cos \vartheta ={\text{max}}\Leftrightarrow \vartheta \approx 0^{\circ }}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>m</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>l</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>l</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">⇔<!-- ⇔ --></mo>
<mi>cos</mi>
<mo>⁡<!-- ⁡ --></mo>
<mi>ϑ<!-- ϑ --></mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mtext>max</mtext>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">⇔<!-- ⇔ --></mo>
<mi>ϑ<!-- ϑ --></mi>
<mo>≈<!-- ≈ --></mo>
<msup>
<mn>0</mn>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>∘<!-- ∘ --></mo>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle m_{l}=+l\Leftrightarrow \cos \vartheta ={\text{max}}\Leftrightarrow \vartheta \approx 0^{\circ }}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/8e18c7308e80f298653768d0af48dbb2d72f7e2a.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:34.576ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle m_{l}=+l\Leftrightarrow \cos \vartheta ={\text{max}}\Leftrightarrow \vartheta \approx 0^{\circ }}" loading="lazy"></span> liegt der Bahndrehimpuls (etwa) <a href="Parallelit%C3%A4t_(Vektorrechnung)" class="mw-redirect" title="Parallelität (Vektorrechnung)">parallel</a> zur Achse,</li>
<li>bei <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle m_{l}=-l\Leftrightarrow \cos \vartheta ={\text{min}}\Leftrightarrow \vartheta \approx 180^{\circ }}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>m</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>l</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi>l</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">⇔<!-- ⇔ --></mo>
<mi>cos</mi>
<mo>⁡<!-- ⁡ --></mo>
<mi>ϑ<!-- ϑ --></mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mtext>min</mtext>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">⇔<!-- ⇔ --></mo>
<mi>ϑ<!-- ϑ --></mi>
<mo>≈<!-- ≈ --></mo>
<msup>
<mn>180</mn>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>∘<!-- ∘ --></mo>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle m_{l}=-l\Leftrightarrow \cos \vartheta ={\text{min}}\Leftrightarrow \vartheta \approx 180^{\circ }}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/af1a59b54532cc25b9379496d4a291b928d10de0.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:36.451ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle m_{l}=-l\Leftrightarrow \cos \vartheta ={\text{min}}\Leftrightarrow \vartheta \approx 180^{\circ }}" loading="lazy"></span> (etwa) <a href="Antiparallelit%C3%A4t_(Vektorrechnung)" class="mw-redirect" title="Antiparallelität (Vektorrechnung)">antiparallel</a>.</li></ul>
<p>Dass bei gegebenem <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle l}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>l</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle l}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/829091f745070b9eb97a80244129025440a1cfac.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.693ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle l}" loading="lazy"></span> genau <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 2l+1}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mn>2</mn>
<mi>l</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 2l+1}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/ad6cc29a87d7b25ec1f294612477d5a38f59c09a.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:5.859ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 2l+1}" loading="lazy"></span> verschiedene Werte möglich sind, wird als <a href="Richtungsquantelung" title="Richtungsquantelung">Richtungsquantelung</a> bezeichnet.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Wenn kein äußeres Feld anliegt, haben die <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 2l+1}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mn>2</mn>
<mi>l</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 2l+1}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/ad6cc29a87d7b25ec1f294612477d5a38f59c09a.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:5.859ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 2l+1}" loading="lazy"></span> einzelnen Orbitale einer Unterschale gleiche Energie. Dagegen spaltet im <a href="Magnetismus" title="Magnetismus">Magnetfeld</a> die Energie innerhalb der Unterschale in <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 2l+1}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mn>2</mn>
<mi>l</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 2l+1}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/ad6cc29a87d7b25ec1f294612477d5a38f59c09a.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:5.859ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 2l+1}" loading="lazy"></span> äquidistante Werte auf (<a href="Zeeman-Effekt" title="Zeeman-Effekt">Zeeman-Effekt</a>), d.&nbsp;h., jedes einzelne Orbital entspricht dann einem separaten Energieniveau.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Magnetische_Spinquantenzahl_ms">Magnetische Spinquantenzahl <i>m<sub>s</sub></i></h3></div>
<p>Bei den leichteren Atomen braucht man den <a href="Elektronenspin" title="Elektronenspin">Elektronenspin</a> nur in der Form zu berücksichtigen, dass jedes Orbital <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \psi _{nlm_{l}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>ψ<!-- ψ --></mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>n</mi>
<mi>l</mi>
<msub>
<mi>m</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>l</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \psi _{nlm_{l}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/4bd4aa6ba745a7323654a3b4957daa1a107ef11f.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:5.227ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \psi _{nlm_{l}}}" loading="lazy"></span> von genau einem <a href="Elektronenpaar" title="Elektronenpaar">Elektronenpaar</a> besetzt werden kann, dessen zwei Elektronen nach dem Pauli-Prinzip entgegengesetzte magnetische Spinquantenzahlen aufweisen (<span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle m_{s}=\pm {\tfrac {1}{2}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>m</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>s</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo>±<!-- ± --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mfrac>
<mn>1</mn>
<mn>2</mn>
</mfrac>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle m_{s}=\pm {\tfrac {1}{2}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/e6bbed7f7b212caf8dcf5cbc6ca8aa4b7e52de0e.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.171ex; width:9.608ex; height:3.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle m_{s}=\pm {\tfrac {1}{2}}}" loading="lazy"></span>).<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gesamtdrehimpuls_j_und_magnetische_Quantenzahl_mj">Gesamtdrehimpuls <i>j</i> und magnetische Quantenzahl <i>m<sub>j</sub></i></h3></div>
<p>Zu den schweren Atomen hin wird die <a href="Spin-Bahn-Wechselwirkung" class="mw-redirect" title="Spin-Bahn-Wechselwirkung">Spin-Bahn-Wechselwirkung</a> stärker. Sie bewirkt die Aufspaltung der Energie einer Unterschale mit bestimmten <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n>1,l>0}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>n</mi>
<mo>&gt;</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>l</mi>
<mo>&gt;</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n&gt;1,l&gt;0}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/30f61e6fd7d9652a0b8ab55325307814414bbc2b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:11.644ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n>1,l>0}" loading="lazy"></span> in zwei Unterschalen, je nach Wert des Gesamtdrehimpulses <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle j=l\pm {\tfrac {1}{2}}.}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>j</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>l</mi>
<mo>±<!-- ± --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mfrac>
<mn>1</mn>
<mn>2</mn>
</mfrac>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<mo>.</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle j=l\pm {\tfrac {1}{2}}.}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/d038616d32270b8fb73a7a59c3a0510563b41526.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.171ex; margin-left: -0.027ex; width:9.922ex; height:3.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle j=l\pm {\tfrac {1}{2}}.}" loading="lazy"></span> Die magnetische Quantenzahl <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle m_{j}=-j,-(j-1),\dotsc ,+j}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>m</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>j</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi>j</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>j</mi>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>,</mo>
<mo>…<!-- … --></mo>
<mo>,</mo>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>j</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle m_{j}=-j,-(j-1),\dotsc ,+j}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/20552ca184c9f5d8a6c5dd43d9e1f765d3b9e87a.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:26.371ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle m_{j}=-j,-(j-1),\dotsc ,+j}" loading="lazy"></span> durchläuft <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 2j+1}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mn>2</mn>
<mi>j</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 2j+1}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a0a258cc33d54429124aedc154d9b3a968c4d99b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:6.123ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 2j+1}" loading="lazy"></span> Werte.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jedes dieser Orbitale kann von einem Elektron besetzt werden, sodass die Gesamtzahl der Plätze gleich bleibt. In der Bezeichnung wird der Wert für <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle j}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>j</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle j}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/2f461e54f5c093e92a55547b9764291390f0b5d0.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; margin-left: -0.027ex; width:0.985ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle j}" loading="lazy"></span> als unterer Index an das Symbol für <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle nl}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>n</mi>
<mi>l</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle nl}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/1d32f8e8b4d4b18151191de7b1809a9d552c33d5.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.088ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle nl}" loading="lazy"></span> angefügt, z.&nbsp;B. <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 2p_{3/2}.}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mn>2</mn>
<msub>
<mi>p</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>3</mn>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>/</mo>
</mrow>
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>.</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 2p_{3/2}.}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/e22f4ce20c0df58cfbbe981eeab085d78620376a.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.171ex; width:5.677ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 2p_{3/2}.}" loading="lazy"></span><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Quantentheorie">Quantentheorie</h2></div>
<div class="hauptartikel" role="navigation"><span class="hauptartikel-pfeil" title="siehe" aria-hidden="true" role="presentation">→&nbsp;</span><i><span class="hauptartikel-text">Hauptartikel</span>: <a href="Wasserstoffproblem" class="mw-redirect" title="Wasserstoffproblem">Wasserstoffproblem</a></i></div>
<p>Aus der nichtrelativistischen Quantentheorie ergeben sich die Orbitale wie folgt: Die Wechselwirkung zwischen Elektron und Atomkern der Kernladungszahl <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Z}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>Z</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Z}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/1cc6b75e09a8aa3f04d8584b11db534f88fb56bd.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.68ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle Z}" loading="lazy"></span> wird durch das <a href="Coulombsches_Gesetz" title="Coulombsches Gesetz">Coulombpotential</a> beschrieben, der Atomkern als fix angenommen. Der <a href="Hamiltonoperator" title="Hamiltonoperator">Hamiltonoperator</a> für das <a href="Ein-Elektron-System" title="Ein-Elektron-System">Ein-Elektron-System</a> ist
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\hat {H}}={\frac {{\hat {p}}^{2}}{2m}}+V(r)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>H</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>p</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mrow>
<mn>2</mn>
<mi>m</mi>
</mrow>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>V</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>r</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\hat {H}}={\frac {{\hat {p}}^{2}}{2m}}+V(r)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/ab540cf943cc57a3c6367579ac2d46eb2e822454.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:16.687ex; height:5.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\hat {H}}={\frac {{\hat {p}}^{2}}{2m}}+V(r)}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>mit dem Potential<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle V(r)={\frac {Ze^{2}}{4\pi \varepsilon _{0}r}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>V</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>r</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mrow>
<mi>Z</mi>
<msup>
<mi>e</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mrow>
<mrow>
<mn>4</mn>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
<msub>
<mi>ε<!-- ε --></mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mi>r</mi>
</mrow>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle V(r)={\frac {Ze^{2}}{4\pi \varepsilon _{0}r}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/382d0498b53b8c2ff3f8a297c0dfaf652ebf1497.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:14.261ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle V(r)={\frac {Ze^{2}}{4\pi \varepsilon _{0}r}}}" loading="lazy"></span>.</dd></dl>
<p>Da der Hamiltonoperator mit dem Drehimpulsoperator kommutiert, bilden <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\hat {H}},}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>H</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo>,</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\hat {H}},}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/9ec15924944b3f54b9aa0f4d6a902e6adbf0fae6.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.71ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\hat {H}},}" loading="lazy"></span> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\hat {l}}^{2}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>l</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\hat {l}}^{2}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/841cd5221bab32d3f9ecb4537efc30e255f5381b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.41ex; height:3.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\hat {l}}^{2}}" loading="lazy"></span> und <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\hat {l}}_{z}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>l</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>z</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\hat {l}}_{z}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/80858792edd88b1eba41017b1e83bee5050c776d.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.358ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\hat {l}}_{z}}" loading="lazy"></span> ein <a href="Vollst%C3%A4ndiger_Satz_kommutierender_Observablen" title="Vollständiger Satz kommutierender Observablen">vollständiges System kommutierender Observablen</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Zu diesen drei Operatoren gibt es also gemeinsame Eigenzustände, die durch die drei zugehörigen Quantenzahlen <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n,l,m_{l}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>n</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>l</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<msub>
<mi>m</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>l</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n,l,m_{l}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/329258dfe3841b3bfe476dfe537c73b6b030e926.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:6.919ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n,l,m_{l}}" loading="lazy"></span> bestimmt sind.
</p><p>Die Schrödingergleichung
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\hat {H}}\cdot \psi _{n,l,m_{l}}(r,\vartheta ,\phi )=E_{n,l,m_{l}}\cdot \psi _{n,l,m_{l}}(r,\vartheta ,\phi )}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>H</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<msub>
<mi>ψ<!-- ψ --></mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>n</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>l</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<msub>
<mi>m</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>l</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>r</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>ϑ<!-- ϑ --></mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>ϕ<!-- ϕ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<msub>
<mi>E</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>n</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>l</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<msub>
<mi>m</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>l</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<msub>
<mi>ψ<!-- ψ --></mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>n</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>l</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<msub>
<mi>m</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>l</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>r</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>ϑ<!-- ϑ --></mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>ϕ<!-- ϕ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\hat {H}}\cdot \psi _{n,l,m_{l}}(r,\vartheta ,\phi )=E_{n,l,m_{l}}\cdot \psi _{n,l,m_{l}}(r,\vartheta ,\phi )}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/2bb9ee5fdfc45e819f68235d24b9811c6c06dad1.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:42.517ex; height:3.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\hat {H}}\cdot \psi _{n,l,m_{l}}(r,\vartheta ,\phi )=E_{n,l,m_{l}}\cdot \psi _{n,l,m_{l}}(r,\vartheta ,\phi )}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>lässt sich in einen radius- und einen winkelabhängigen Teil zerlegen.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Die Eigenfunktionen <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \psi _{n,l,m_{l}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>ψ<!-- ψ --></mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>n</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>l</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<msub>
<mi>m</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>l</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \psi _{n,l,m_{l}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/1df9bca2492fe6ffeacf827e082aeb14a4160b7f.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:6.142ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \psi _{n,l,m_{l}}}" loading="lazy"></span> sind das Produkt aus einer <a href="Kugelfl%C3%A4chenfunktion" class="mw-redirect" title="Kugelflächenfunktion">Kugelflächenfunktion</a> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Y_{lm_{l}}(\vartheta ,\varphi )}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>Y</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>l</mi>
<msub>
<mi>m</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>l</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>ϑ<!-- ϑ --></mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>φ<!-- φ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Y_{lm_{l}}(\vartheta ,\varphi )}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/456bf3150740a52b22170fe4361a631def3f2c33.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:9.815ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle Y_{lm_{l}}(\vartheta ,\varphi )}" loading="lazy"></span> (Eigenfunktion des Drehimpulsoperators) und einer radialen Funktion <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Phi _{nl}(r)\colon }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi mathvariant="normal">Φ<!-- Φ --></mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>n</mi>
<mi>l</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>r</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>:<!-- : --></mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Phi _{nl}(r)\colon }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/c703ff1dfc73c9b9a4e05b798f8c4d14b8bf5daa.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:6.892ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \Phi _{nl}(r)\colon }" loading="lazy"></span>
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \psi _{n,l,m_{l}}(r,\vartheta ,\phi )=Y_{lm_{l}}(\vartheta ,\varphi )\cdot \Phi _{nl}(r)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>ψ<!-- ψ --></mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>n</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>l</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<msub>
<mi>m</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>l</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>r</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>ϑ<!-- ϑ --></mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>ϕ<!-- ϕ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<msub>
<mi>Y</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>l</mi>
<msub>
<mi>m</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>l</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>ϑ<!-- ϑ --></mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>φ<!-- φ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<msub>
<mi mathvariant="normal">Φ<!-- Φ --></mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>n</mi>
<mi>l</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>r</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \psi _{n,l,m_{l}}(r,\vartheta ,\phi )=Y_{lm_{l}}(\vartheta ,\varphi )\cdot \Phi _{nl}(r)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/80f77e55babf5557c7aed10f831ba13825beca95.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:34.664ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \psi _{n,l,m_{l}}(r,\vartheta ,\phi )=Y_{lm_{l}}(\vartheta ,\varphi )\cdot \Phi _{nl}(r)}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>Diese sind bis <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n{\mathord {=}}3}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>n</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>=</mo>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mn>3</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n{\mathord {=}}3}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/40c02c3f2e0259e24676c328fcfd303ede3dabda.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:4.365ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n{\mathord {=}}3}" loading="lazy"></span> in der folgenden Tabelle normiert dargestellt. Dabei bezeichnen <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle a_{0}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>a</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle a_{0}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/693ad9f934775838bd72406b41ada4a59785d7ba.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.284ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle a_{0}}" loading="lazy"></span> den <a href="Bohrscher_Radius" title="Bohrscher Radius">Bohrschen Radius</a> und <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Z}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>Z</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Z}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/1cc6b75e09a8aa3f04d8584b11db534f88fb56bd.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.68ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle Z}" loading="lazy"></span> die Kernladungszahl.
</p><p>Die in der folgenden Tabelle dargestellten Orbitale sind alle um die z-Achse ausgerichtet, weil es sich um Eigenfunktionen des <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\hat {l}}_{z}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>l</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>z</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\hat {l}}_{z}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/80858792edd88b1eba41017b1e83bee5050c776d.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.358ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\hat {l}}_{z}}" loading="lazy"></span>-Operators handelt. Für Ausrichtung eines Orbitals mit gegebenem Bahndrehimpuls <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle l}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>l</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle l}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/829091f745070b9eb97a80244129025440a1cfac.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.693ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle l}" loading="lazy"></span> in eine beliebige andere Richtung muss man Linearkombinationen der Wellenfunktionen zu den verschiedenen <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle m_{l}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>m</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>l</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle m_{l}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a3f945c408d692391284a629617fe0b301776222.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.763ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle m_{l}}" loading="lazy"></span> bilden. Die grafische Darstellung zeigt ein Volumen, auf dessen Oberfläche die Aufenthaltswahrscheinlichkeitsdichte <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle |\psi ({\vec {r}})|^{2}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo stretchy="false">|</mo>
</mrow>
<mi>ψ<!-- ψ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>r</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">→<!-- → --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo stretchy="false">|</mo>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle |\psi ({\vec {r}})|^{2}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/1f0223d0e4b6c5eaf1357117b8d140ef2b4f2439.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:6.893ex; height:3.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle |\psi ({\vec {r}})|^{2}}" loading="lazy"></span> konstant ist. Die Farben kodieren die komplexe Phase der Wellenfunktion.
</p>
<table class="wikitable">
<caption>Komplexe Wellenfunktionen in <a href="Wasserstoff%C3%A4hnliches_Ion" class="mw-redirect" title="Wasserstoffähnliches Ion">wasserstoffähnlichen Atomen</a><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</caption>
<tbody><tr>
<th>Orbital
</th>
<th colspan="4">Wellenfunktion des Orbitals
</th>
<th>Form des Orbitals <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \psi _{n,l,m_{l}}({\vec {r}})}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>ψ<!-- ψ --></mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>n</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>l</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<msub>
<mi>m</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>l</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>r</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">→<!-- → --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \psi _{n,l,m_{l}}({\vec {r}})}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/49dce3f5f8af3a195f44b90b515a7386b23a3092.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:9.174ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \psi _{n,l,m_{l}}({\vec {r}})}" loading="lazy"></span><br>(nicht maßstäblich<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>)
</th></tr>
<tr>
<th></th>
<th><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>n</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a601995d55609f2d9f5e233e36fbe9ea26011b3b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.395ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n}" loading="lazy"></span></th>
<th><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle l}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>l</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle l}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/829091f745070b9eb97a80244129025440a1cfac.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.693ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle l}" loading="lazy"></span></th>
<th><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle m_{l}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>m</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>l</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle m_{l}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a3f945c408d692391284a629617fe0b301776222.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.763ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle m_{l}}" loading="lazy"></span></th>
<th><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \psi _{n,l,m_{l}}(r,\theta ,\phi )}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>ψ<!-- ψ --></mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>n</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>l</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<msub>
<mi>m</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>l</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>r</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>θ<!-- θ --></mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>ϕ<!-- ϕ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \psi _{n,l,m_{l}}(r,\theta ,\phi )}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/b734b23eccf1e98e24f94cb196be94772c638514.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:13.543ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \psi _{n,l,m_{l}}(r,\theta ,\phi )}" loading="lazy"></span></th>
<th>
</th></tr>
<tr>
<td>1s</td>
<td>1</td>
<td>0</td>
<td><span style="visibility:hidden;">0</span>0</td>
<td><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{\sqrt {\pi }}}\left({\frac {Z}{a_{0}}}\right)^{\frac {3}{2}}e^{-\textstyle {\frac {Zr}{a_{0}}}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mn>1</mn>
<msqrt>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
</msqrt>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<msup>
<mrow>
<mo>(</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mi>Z</mi>
<msub>
<mi>a</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mn>3</mn>
<mn>2</mn>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
</msup>
<msup>
<mi>e</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mrow>
<mi>Z</mi>
<mi>r</mi>
</mrow>
<msub>
<mi>a</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{\sqrt {\pi }}}\left({\frac {Z}{a_{0}}}\right)^{\frac {3}{2}}e^{-\textstyle {\frac {Zr}{a_{0}}}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/380a75ac0d2f723bab2684c4521515aa18d17237.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.838ex; width:17.741ex; height:7.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{\sqrt {\pi }}}\left({\frac {Z}{a_{0}}}\right)^{\frac {3}{2}}e^{-\textstyle {\frac {Zr}{a_{0}}}}}" loading="lazy"></span>
</td>
<td style="text-align:center"><span typeof="mw:File"></span>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>2s</td>
<td>2</td>
<td>0</td>
<td><span style="visibility:hidden;">0</span>0</td>
<td><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{4{\sqrt {2\pi }}}}\left({\frac {Z}{a_{0}}}\right)^{\frac {3}{2}}\left(2-{\frac {Zr}{a_{0}}}\right)e^{-\textstyle {\frac {Zr}{2a_{0}}}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mn>1</mn>
<mrow>
<mn>4</mn>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<msqrt>
<mn>2</mn>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
</msqrt>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<msup>
<mrow>
<mo>(</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mi>Z</mi>
<msub>
<mi>a</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mn>3</mn>
<mn>2</mn>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mrow>
<mo>(</mo>
<mrow>
<mn>2</mn>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mrow>
<mi>Z</mi>
<mi>r</mi>
</mrow>
<msub>
<mi>a</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
<msup>
<mi>e</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mrow>
<mi>Z</mi>
<mi>r</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow>
<mn>2</mn>
<msub>
<mi>a</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mrow>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{4{\sqrt {2\pi }}}}\left({\frac {Z}{a_{0}}}\right)^{\frac {3}{2}}\left(2-{\frac {Zr}{a_{0}}}\right)e^{-\textstyle {\frac {Zr}{2a_{0}}}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f8f6adee5a9d2a4ab318369bd1cb8e4d541d4947.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.838ex; width:32.423ex; height:7.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{4{\sqrt {2\pi }}}}\left({\frac {Z}{a_{0}}}\right)^{\frac {3}{2}}\left(2-{\frac {Zr}{a_{0}}}\right)e^{-\textstyle {\frac {Zr}{2a_{0}}}}}" loading="lazy"></span>
</td>
<td style="text-align:center"><span typeof="mw:File"></span>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>2p<sub>0</sub></td>
<td>2</td>
<td>1</td>
<td><span style="visibility:hidden;">0</span>0</td>
<td><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{4{\sqrt {2\pi }}}}\left({\frac {Z}{a_{0}}}\right)^{\frac {3}{2}}{\frac {Zr}{a_{0}}}e^{-\textstyle {\frac {Zr}{2a_{0}}}}\cos \theta }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mn>1</mn>
<mrow>
<mn>4</mn>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<msqrt>
<mn>2</mn>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
</msqrt>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<msup>
<mrow>
<mo>(</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mi>Z</mi>
<msub>
<mi>a</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mn>3</mn>
<mn>2</mn>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mrow>
<mi>Z</mi>
<mi>r</mi>
</mrow>
<msub>
<mi>a</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<msup>
<mi>e</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mrow>
<mi>Z</mi>
<mi>r</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow>
<mn>2</mn>
<msub>
<mi>a</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mrow>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mi>cos</mi>
<mo>⁡<!-- ⁡ --></mo>
<mi>θ<!-- θ --></mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{4{\sqrt {2\pi }}}}\left({\frac {Z}{a_{0}}}\right)^{\frac {3}{2}}{\frac {Zr}{a_{0}}}e^{-\textstyle {\frac {Zr}{2a_{0}}}}\cos \theta }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/4154f14f0d19df467c2e1043abb3d081739d2a78.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.838ex; width:29.201ex; height:7.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{4{\sqrt {2\pi }}}}\left({\frac {Z}{a_{0}}}\right)^{\frac {3}{2}}{\frac {Zr}{a_{0}}}e^{-\textstyle {\frac {Zr}{2a_{0}}}}\cos \theta }" loading="lazy"></span>
</td>
<td style="text-align:center"><span typeof="mw:File"></span>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>2p<sub>−1/+1</sub></td>
<td>2</td>
<td>1</td>
<td>±1</td>
<td><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{8{\sqrt {\pi }}}}\left({\frac {Z}{a_{0}}}\right)^{\frac {3}{2}}{\frac {Zr}{a_{0}}}e^{-\textstyle {\frac {Zr}{2a_{0}}}}\sin \theta e^{\pm i\phi }}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mn>1</mn>
<mrow>
<mn>8</mn>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<msqrt>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
</msqrt>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<msup>
<mrow>
<mo>(</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mi>Z</mi>
<msub>
<mi>a</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mn>3</mn>
<mn>2</mn>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mrow>
<mi>Z</mi>
<mi>r</mi>
</mrow>
<msub>
<mi>a</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<msup>
<mi>e</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mrow>
<mi>Z</mi>
<mi>r</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow>
<mn>2</mn>
<msub>
<mi>a</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mrow>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mi>sin</mi>
<mo>⁡<!-- ⁡ --></mo>
<mi>θ<!-- θ --></mi>
<msup>
<mi>e</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>±<!-- ± --></mo>
<mi>i</mi>
<mi>ϕ<!-- ϕ --></mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{8{\sqrt {\pi }}}}\left({\frac {Z}{a_{0}}}\right)^{\frac {3}{2}}{\frac {Zr}{a_{0}}}e^{-\textstyle {\frac {Zr}{2a_{0}}}}\sin \theta e^{\pm i\phi }}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/b71f8c70d145fe5d4458e66c03abc7301f3f2936.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.838ex; width:31.924ex; height:7.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{8{\sqrt {\pi }}}}\left({\frac {Z}{a_{0}}}\right)^{\frac {3}{2}}{\frac {Zr}{a_{0}}}e^{-\textstyle {\frac {Zr}{2a_{0}}}}\sin \theta e^{\pm i\phi }}" loading="lazy"></span>
</td>
<td style="text-align:center"><span typeof="mw:File"></span> <span typeof="mw:File"></span>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>3s</td>
<td>3</td>
<td>0</td>
<td><span style="visibility:hidden;">0</span>0</td>
<td><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{81{\sqrt {3\pi }}}}\left({\frac {Z}{a_{0}}}\right)^{\frac {3}{2}}\left(27-18{\frac {Zr}{a_{0}}}+2{\frac {Z^{2}r^{2}}{a_{0}^{2}}}\right)e^{-\textstyle {\frac {Zr}{3a_{0}}}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mn>1</mn>
<mrow>
<mn>81</mn>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<msqrt>
<mn>3</mn>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
</msqrt>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<msup>
<mrow>
<mo>(</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mi>Z</mi>
<msub>
<mi>a</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mn>3</mn>
<mn>2</mn>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mrow>
<mo>(</mo>
<mrow>
<mn>27</mn>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>18</mn>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mrow>
<mi>Z</mi>
<mi>r</mi>
</mrow>
<msub>
<mi>a</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<mo>+</mo>
<mn>2</mn>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mrow>
<msup>
<mi>Z</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<msup>
<mi>r</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mrow>
<msubsup>
<mi>a</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msubsup>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
<msup>
<mi>e</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mrow>
<mi>Z</mi>
<mi>r</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow>
<mn>3</mn>
<msub>
<mi>a</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mrow>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{81{\sqrt {3\pi }}}}\left({\frac {Z}{a_{0}}}\right)^{\frac {3}{2}}\left(27-18{\frac {Zr}{a_{0}}}+2{\frac {Z^{2}r^{2}}{a_{0}^{2}}}\right)e^{-\textstyle {\frac {Zr}{3a_{0}}}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/bbc1e919726c418a56f0ff670cce5d794a0bed7c.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.171ex; width:47.037ex; height:8.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{81{\sqrt {3\pi }}}}\left({\frac {Z}{a_{0}}}\right)^{\frac {3}{2}}\left(27-18{\frac {Zr}{a_{0}}}+2{\frac {Z^{2}r^{2}}{a_{0}^{2}}}\right)e^{-\textstyle {\frac {Zr}{3a_{0}}}}}" loading="lazy"></span>
</td>
<td style="text-align:center"><span typeof="mw:File"></span>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>3p<sub>0</sub></td>
<td>3</td>
<td>1</td>
<td><span style="visibility:hidden;">0</span>0</td>
<td><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\frac {\sqrt {2}}{81{\sqrt {\pi }}}}\left({\frac {Z}{a_{0}}}\right)^{\frac {3}{2}}\left(6-{\frac {Zr}{a_{0}}}\right){\frac {Zr}{a_{0}}}e^{-\textstyle {\frac {Zr}{3a_{0}}}}\cos \theta }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<msqrt>
<mn>2</mn>
</msqrt>
<mrow>
<mn>81</mn>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<msqrt>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
</msqrt>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<msup>
<mrow>
<mo>(</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mi>Z</mi>
<msub>
<mi>a</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mn>3</mn>
<mn>2</mn>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mrow>
<mo>(</mo>
<mrow>
<mn>6</mn>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mrow>
<mi>Z</mi>
<mi>r</mi>
</mrow>
<msub>
<mi>a</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mrow>
<mi>Z</mi>
<mi>r</mi>
</mrow>
<msub>
<mi>a</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<msup>
<mi>e</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mrow>
<mi>Z</mi>
<mi>r</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow>
<mn>3</mn>
<msub>
<mi>a</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mrow>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mi>cos</mi>
<mo>⁡<!-- ⁡ --></mo>
<mi>θ<!-- θ --></mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {\sqrt {2}}{81{\sqrt {\pi }}}}\left({\frac {Z}{a_{0}}}\right)^{\frac {3}{2}}\left(6-{\frac {Zr}{a_{0}}}\right){\frac {Zr}{a_{0}}}e^{-\textstyle {\frac {Zr}{3a_{0}}}}\cos \theta }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/04935f23ffb25bb4670462a406d95e997d38a01b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.838ex; width:40.964ex; height:7.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\frac {\sqrt {2}}{81{\sqrt {\pi }}}}\left({\frac {Z}{a_{0}}}\right)^{\frac {3}{2}}\left(6-{\frac {Zr}{a_{0}}}\right){\frac {Zr}{a_{0}}}e^{-\textstyle {\frac {Zr}{3a_{0}}}}\cos \theta }" loading="lazy"></span>
</td>
<td style="text-align:center"><span typeof="mw:File"></span>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>3p<sub>−1/+1</sub></td>
<td>3</td>
<td>1</td>
<td>±1</td>
<td><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{81{\sqrt {\pi }}}}\left({\frac {Z}{a_{0}}}\right)^{\frac {3}{2}}\left(6-{\frac {Zr}{a_{0}}}\right){\frac {Zr}{a_{0}}}e^{-\textstyle {\frac {Zr}{3a_{0}}}}\sin \theta e^{\pm i\phi }}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mn>1</mn>
<mrow>
<mn>81</mn>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<msqrt>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
</msqrt>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<msup>
<mrow>
<mo>(</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mi>Z</mi>
<msub>
<mi>a</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mn>3</mn>
<mn>2</mn>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mrow>
<mo>(</mo>
<mrow>
<mn>6</mn>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mrow>
<mi>Z</mi>
<mi>r</mi>
</mrow>
<msub>
<mi>a</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mrow>
<mi>Z</mi>
<mi>r</mi>
</mrow>
<msub>
<mi>a</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<msup>
<mi>e</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mrow>
<mi>Z</mi>
<mi>r</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow>
<mn>3</mn>
<msub>
<mi>a</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mrow>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mi>sin</mi>
<mo>⁡<!-- ⁡ --></mo>
<mi>θ<!-- θ --></mi>
<msup>
<mi>e</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>±<!-- ± --></mo>
<mi>i</mi>
<mi>ϕ<!-- ϕ --></mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{81{\sqrt {\pi }}}}\left({\frac {Z}{a_{0}}}\right)^{\frac {3}{2}}\left(6-{\frac {Zr}{a_{0}}}\right){\frac {Zr}{a_{0}}}e^{-\textstyle {\frac {Zr}{3a_{0}}}}\sin \theta e^{\pm i\phi }}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/6989ec903fe1c484050668d3d0833660459bfe12.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.838ex; width:44.85ex; height:7.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{81{\sqrt {\pi }}}}\left({\frac {Z}{a_{0}}}\right)^{\frac {3}{2}}\left(6-{\frac {Zr}{a_{0}}}\right){\frac {Zr}{a_{0}}}e^{-\textstyle {\frac {Zr}{3a_{0}}}}\sin \theta e^{\pm i\phi }}" loading="lazy"></span>
</td>
<td style="text-align:center"><span typeof="mw:File"></span> <span typeof="mw:File"></span>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>3d<sub>0</sub></td>
<td>3</td>
<td>2</td>
<td><span style="visibility:hidden;">0</span>0</td>
<td><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{81{\sqrt {6\pi }}}}\left({\frac {Z}{a_{0}}}\right)^{\frac {3}{2}}{\frac {Z^{2}r^{2}}{a_{0}^{2}}}e^{-\textstyle {\frac {Zr}{3a_{0}}}}(3\cos ^{2}\theta -1)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mn>1</mn>
<mrow>
<mn>81</mn>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<msqrt>
<mn>6</mn>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
</msqrt>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<msup>
<mrow>
<mo>(</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mi>Z</mi>
<msub>
<mi>a</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mn>3</mn>
<mn>2</mn>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mrow>
<msup>
<mi>Z</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<msup>
<mi>r</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mrow>
<msubsup>
<mi>a</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msubsup>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<msup>
<mi>e</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mrow>
<mi>Z</mi>
<mi>r</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow>
<mn>3</mn>
<msub>
<mi>a</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mrow>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mn>3</mn>
<msup>
<mi>cos</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>⁡<!-- ⁡ --></mo>
<mi>θ<!-- θ --></mi>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{81{\sqrt {6\pi }}}}\left({\frac {Z}{a_{0}}}\right)^{\frac {3}{2}}{\frac {Z^{2}r^{2}}{a_{0}^{2}}}e^{-\textstyle {\frac {Zr}{3a_{0}}}}(3\cos ^{2}\theta -1)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/be5c42268ccc20c5863448fbed90630d4fd9ccc1.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.005ex; width:40.528ex; height:7.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{81{\sqrt {6\pi }}}}\left({\frac {Z}{a_{0}}}\right)^{\frac {3}{2}}{\frac {Z^{2}r^{2}}{a_{0}^{2}}}e^{-\textstyle {\frac {Zr}{3a_{0}}}}(3\cos ^{2}\theta -1)}" loading="lazy"></span>
</td>
<td style="text-align:center"><span typeof="mw:File"></span>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>3d<sub>−1/+1</sub></td>
<td>3</td>
<td>2</td>
<td>±1</td>
<td><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{81{\sqrt {\pi }}}}\left({\frac {Z}{a_{0}}}\right)^{\frac {3}{2}}{\frac {Z^{2}r^{2}}{a_{0}^{2}}}e^{-\textstyle {\frac {Zr}{3a_{0}}}}\sin \theta \cos \theta e^{\pm i\phi }}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mn>1</mn>
<mrow>
<mn>81</mn>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<msqrt>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
</msqrt>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<msup>
<mrow>
<mo>(</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mi>Z</mi>
<msub>
<mi>a</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mn>3</mn>
<mn>2</mn>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mrow>
<msup>
<mi>Z</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<msup>
<mi>r</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mrow>
<msubsup>
<mi>a</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msubsup>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<msup>
<mi>e</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mrow>
<mi>Z</mi>
<mi>r</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow>
<mn>3</mn>
<msub>
<mi>a</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mrow>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mi>sin</mi>
<mo>⁡<!-- ⁡ --></mo>
<mi>θ<!-- θ --></mi>
<mi>cos</mi>
<mo>⁡<!-- ⁡ --></mo>
<mi>θ<!-- θ --></mi>
<msup>
<mi>e</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>±<!-- ± --></mo>
<mi>i</mi>
<mi>ϕ<!-- ϕ --></mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{81{\sqrt {\pi }}}}\left({\frac {Z}{a_{0}}}\right)^{\frac {3}{2}}{\frac {Z^{2}r^{2}}{a_{0}^{2}}}e^{-\textstyle {\frac {Zr}{3a_{0}}}}\sin \theta \cos \theta e^{\pm i\phi }}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/d7ab7402d61ff88f8a180f2a3a39fb757682a900.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.005ex; width:40.199ex; height:7.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{81{\sqrt {\pi }}}}\left({\frac {Z}{a_{0}}}\right)^{\frac {3}{2}}{\frac {Z^{2}r^{2}}{a_{0}^{2}}}e^{-\textstyle {\frac {Zr}{3a_{0}}}}\sin \theta \cos \theta e^{\pm i\phi }}" loading="lazy"></span>
</td>
<td style="text-align:center"><span typeof="mw:File"></span> <span typeof="mw:File"></span>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>3d<sub>−2/+2</sub></td>
<td>3</td>
<td>2</td>
<td>±2</td>
<td><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{162{\sqrt {\pi }}}}\left({\frac {Z}{a_{0}}}\right)^{\frac {3}{2}}{\frac {Z^{2}r^{2}}{a_{0}^{2}}}e^{-\textstyle {\frac {Zr}{3a_{0}}}}\sin ^{2}\theta e^{\pm 2i\phi }}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mn>1</mn>
<mrow>
<mn>162</mn>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<msqrt>
<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
</msqrt>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<msup>
<mrow>
<mo>(</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mi>Z</mi>
<msub>
<mi>a</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mn>3</mn>
<mn>2</mn>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mrow>
<msup>
<mi>Z</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<msup>
<mi>r</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mrow>
<msubsup>
<mi>a</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msubsup>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<msup>
<mi>e</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mrow>
<mi>Z</mi>
<mi>r</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow>
<mn>3</mn>
<msub>
<mi>a</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mrow>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
</msup>
<msup>
<mi>sin</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>⁡<!-- ⁡ --></mo>
<mi>θ<!-- θ --></mi>
<msup>
<mi>e</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>±<!-- ± --></mo>
<mn>2</mn>
<mi>i</mi>
<mi>ϕ<!-- ϕ --></mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{162{\sqrt {\pi }}}}\left({\frac {Z}{a_{0}}}\right)^{\frac {3}{2}}{\frac {Z^{2}r^{2}}{a_{0}^{2}}}e^{-\textstyle {\frac {Zr}{3a_{0}}}}\sin ^{2}\theta e^{\pm 2i\phi }}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/0a0c88ce3b9852267260ccc4a6c6cb68d39653d0.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.005ex; width:38.262ex; height:7.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{162{\sqrt {\pi }}}}\left({\frac {Z}{a_{0}}}\right)^{\frac {3}{2}}{\frac {Z^{2}r^{2}}{a_{0}^{2}}}e^{-\textstyle {\frac {Zr}{3a_{0}}}}\sin ^{2}\theta e^{\pm 2i\phi }}" loading="lazy"></span>
</td>
<td style="text-align:center"><span typeof="mw:File"></span> <span typeof="mw:File"></span>
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Natürliches_Orbital"><span id="Nat.C3.BCrliches_Orbital"></span>Natürliches Orbital</h2></div>
<p>Ein natürliches Orbital ist ein Orbital, das sich nicht als Eigenfunktion eines Hamiltonoperators ergibt, sondern als Eigenfunktion eines <a href="Dichteoperator#Einteilchendichteoperator" title="Dichteoperator">Einelektronen-Dichteoperators</a>. Dieser wird aus einem vorgegebenen Vielteilchenzustand gewonnen, der beispielsweise auch Elektronenkorrelationen enthalten kann und damit über den Rahmen eines Einzelteilchenmodells hinausgeht. Die mit den natürlichen Orbitalen gebildete <a href="Elektronenkonfiguration" title="Elektronenkonfiguration">Elektronenkonfiguration</a> ergibt die beste Annäherung an den anfangs gegebenen Vielteilchenzustand, die mit einem Einzelteilchenmodell möglich ist.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Zeitabhängigkeit"><span id="Zeitabh.C3.A4ngigkeit"></span>Zeitabhängigkeit</h2></div>
<p>Werden Orbitale als Eigenfunktionen eines Operators definiert, der zu einer Energie korrespondiert, dann sind diese Orbitale im Rahmen des gewählten Modells stationär. Beispiele hierfür sind die <a href="Hartree-Fock-Methode" title="Hartree-Fock-Methode">Hartree-Fock</a>-Orbitale<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> als Eigenfunktionen des Fockoperators <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\hat {F}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>F</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\hat {F}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/e22e0749dfc79fd15d8f156203a276fb7092fc51.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.805ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\hat {F}}}" loading="lazy"></span> und die <a href="Kohn-Sham-Gleichung" class="mw-redirect" title="Kohn-Sham-Gleichung">Kohn-Sham</a>-Orbitale, die Eigenfunktionen des Kohn-Sham-Hamilton-Operators sind.<sup id="cite_ref-Wedler421_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wedler421-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Im Gegensatz dazu sind die sogenannten <i>natürlichen Orbitale,</i> als Eigenfunktionen des reduzierten <a href="Dichteoperator#Einteilchendichteoperator" title="Dichteoperator">Einelektronen-Dichteoperators</a>, nicht stationär.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Hybridisierung">Hybridisierung</h2></div>
<p>Einige <a href="Symmetrie_(Geometrie)" title="Symmetrie (Geometrie)">Symmetrien</a> von chemischen Bindungen scheinen den charakteristischen Formen der Orbitale zu widersprechen. Diese Bindungen werden durch die Bildung von <a href="Hybridorbital" title="Hybridorbital">Hybrid-Orbitalen</a> verständlich, die sich bei Anwesenheit von Elektronen mit verschiedenem Bahndrehimpuls bilden können, wenn sie energetisch nahezu gleichwertig sind (siehe oben).<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mehr-Elektronen-Wellenfunktionen">Mehr-Elektronen-Wellenfunktionen</h2></div>
<p>Die Interpretation von Orbitalen als Wellenfunktionen je eines Elektrons ist nur bei Einzelelektronensystemen eindeutig möglich. Eine Wellenfunktion für <i>N</i> Elektronen kann dann konstruiert werden, indem man <i>N</i> Orbitale in eine <a href="Slater-Determinante" title="Slater-Determinante">Slater-Determinante</a> einsetzt.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dies garantiert die für <a href="Fermion" title="Fermion">Fermionen</a> notwendige Antisymmetrie der gesamten Wellenfunktion, kann aber darüber hinaus gehende <a href="Quantenverschr%C3%A4nkung" title="Quantenverschränkung">Elektronenkorrelationen</a> nicht darstellen. Um auch die Elektron-Elektron-Wechselwirkung näherungsweise zu berücksichtigen, können die Orbitale durch <a href="Hartree-Fock-Methode" title="Hartree-Fock-Methode">Hartree-Fock</a>-<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>, Kohn-Sham-Rechnungen (siehe: <a href="Dichtefunktionaltheorie_(Quantenphysik)" title="Dichtefunktionaltheorie (Quantenphysik)">Dichtefunktionaltheorie in der Quantenphysik</a><sup id="cite_ref-Wedler421_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wedler421-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) oder MCSCF-Rechnungen (MCSCF: Multiconfiguration Self Consistent Field) bestimmt werden. Doch stets bleibt gültig, dass anders gewählte Orbitale, wenn sie linear unabhängige <a href="Linearkombination" title="Linearkombination">Linearkombinationen</a> der ursprünglichen sind, mathematisch die gleiche Slater-Determinante ergeben, sodass man aus einer gegebenen Mehrteilchen-Wellenfunktion nicht eindeutig zurückschließen kann, welches die einzelnen besetzten Orbitale sind.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Literatur">Literatur</h2></div>
<ul><li><a href="Wolfgang_Demtr%C3%B6der" title="Wolfgang Demtröder">Wolfgang Demtröder</a>: <cite style="font-style:italic">Atome, Moleküle und Festkörper</cite>. 3. Auflage. Springer, 2002, ISBN 3-540-21473-9.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Atomorbital&amp;rft.au=Wolfgang+Demtr%C3%B6der&amp;rft.btitle=Atome%2C+Molek%C3%BCle+und+Festk%C3%B6rper&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft.edition=3&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=3540214739&amp;rft.pub=Springer" style="display:none">&nbsp;</span></li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Weblinks">Weblinks</h2></div>
<div class="sisterproject" style="margin:0.1em 0 0 0;"><div class="noresize noviewer" style="display:inline-block; line-height:10px; min-width:1.6em; text-align:center;" aria-hidden="true" role="presentation"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons"></span></span></div><b><span class=""><a class="external text" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Orbitals?uselang=de"><span lang="en">Commons</span>: Orbitale</a></span></b>&nbsp;– Sammlung von Bildern, Videos und Audiodateien</div>
<div class="sisterproject" style="margin:0.1em 0 0 0;"><span class="noviewer" style="display:inline-block; line-height:10px; min-width:1.6em; text-align:center;" aria-hidden="true" role="presentation"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Wiktionary"></span></span></span><b><a href="https://de.wiktionary.org/wiki/Orbital" class="extiw external" title="wikt:Orbital">Wiktionary: Orbital</a></b>&nbsp;– Bedeutungserklärungen, Wortherkunft, Synonyme, Übersetzungen</div>
<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mikomma.de/orbitals/orbitalb.htm">Wasserstoff-Orbitale</a> bei mikomma.de</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.shef.ac.uk/chemistry/orbitron/AOs/1s/index.html">3D-Darstellungen</a> von Orbitalen der University of Sheffield</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.orbitals.com/orb/index.html">3D-Darstellung</a> verschiedener Orbitale und ein Programm zur Berechnung der Bilder</li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Einzelnachweise">Einzelnachweise</h2></div>
<div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-1">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="cite">The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC): <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://goldbook.iupac.org/terms/view/A00500"><i>IUPAC - atomic orbital (A00500).</i></a><span class="Abrufdatum"> Abgerufen am 13.&nbsp;Juni 2025</span> (englisch).</span><span style="display: none;" class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adc&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fde.wikipedia.org%3AAtomorbital&amp;rft.title=IUPAC+-+atomic+orbital+%28A00500%29&amp;rft.description=IUPAC+-+atomic+orbital+%28A00500%29&amp;rft.identifier=https%3A%2F%2Fgoldbook.iupac.org%2Fterms%2Fview%2FA00500&amp;rft.creator=The+International+Union+of+Pure+and+Applied+Chemistry+%28IUPAC%29&amp;rft.language=en">&nbsp;</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-2">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Friedhelm Kuypers: <cite style="font-style:italic">Quantenmechanik - Lehr- und Arbeitsbuch</cite>. 1. Auflage. WILEY-VCH, Weinheim 2020, ISBN 978-3-527-41380-5, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em">&nbsp;</span>285</span>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Atomorbital&amp;rft.au=Friedhelm+Kuypers&amp;rft.btitle=Quantenmechanik+-+Lehr-+und+Arbeitsbuch&amp;rft.date=2020&amp;rft.edition=1.&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=9783527413805&amp;rft.pages=285&amp;rft.place=Weinheim&amp;rft.pub=WILEY-VCH" style="display:none">&nbsp;</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-3">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Friedhelm Kuypers: <cite style="font-style:italic">Quantenmechanik - Lehr- und Arbeitsbuch</cite>. 1. Auflage. WILEY-VCH, Weinheim 2020, ISBN 978-3-527-41380-5, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em">&nbsp;</span>11</span>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Atomorbital&amp;rft.au=Friedhelm+Kuypers&amp;rft.btitle=Quantenmechanik+-+Lehr-+und+Arbeitsbuch&amp;rft.date=2020&amp;rft.edition=1.&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=9783527413805&amp;rft.pages=11&amp;rft.place=Weinheim&amp;rft.pub=WILEY-VCH" style="display:none">&nbsp;</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-4">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hermann Haken, Hans Christoph Wolf: <cite style="font-style:italic">Atom- und Quantenphysik - Einführung in die experimentellen und theoretischen Grundlagen</cite>. 7. Auflage. Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg New York 2000, ISBN 3-540-67453-5, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em">&nbsp;</span>119</span>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Atomorbital&amp;rft.au=Hermann+Haken%2C+Hans+Christoph+Wolf&amp;rft.btitle=Atom-+und+Quantenphysik+-+Einf%C3%BChrung+in+die+experimentellen+und+theoretischen+Grundlagen&amp;rft.date=2000&amp;rft.edition=7.&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=3540674535&amp;rft.pages=119&amp;rft.place=Berlin+Heidelberg+New+York&amp;rft.pub=Springer-Verlag" style="display:none">&nbsp;</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-5">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Steven Weinberg: <cite style="font-style:italic">Quantenmechanik - Eine Einführung des Nobelpreisträgers</cite>. Pearson Studium, München 2015, ISBN 978-3-86894-263-7, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em">&nbsp;</span>62</span>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Atomorbital&amp;rft.au=Steven+Weinberg&amp;rft.btitle=Quantenmechanik+-+Eine+Einf%C3%BChrung+des+Nobelpreistr%C3%A4gers&amp;rft.date=2015&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=9783868942637&amp;rft.pages=62&amp;rft.place=M%C3%BCnchen&amp;rft.pub=Pearson+Studium" style="display:none">&nbsp;</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-6">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Friedhelm Kuypers: <cite style="font-style:italic">Quantenmechanik - Lehr- und Arbeitsbuch</cite>. 1. Auflage. WILEY-VCH, Weinheim 2020, ISBN 978-3-527-41380-5, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em">&nbsp;</span>274</span>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Atomorbital&amp;rft.au=Friedhelm+Kuypers&amp;rft.btitle=Quantenmechanik+-+Lehr-+und+Arbeitsbuch&amp;rft.date=2020&amp;rft.edition=1.&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=9783527413805&amp;rft.pages=274&amp;rft.place=Weinheim&amp;rft.pub=WILEY-VCH" style="display:none">&nbsp;</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Haken172-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Haken172_7-0">a</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Haken172_7-1">b</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text">Hermann Haken, Hans Christoph Wolf: <cite style="font-style:italic">Atom- und Quantenphysik - Einführung in die experimentellen und theoretischen Grundlagen</cite>. 7. Auflage. Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg New York 2000, ISBN 3-540-67453-5, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em">&nbsp;</span>172</span>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Atomorbital&amp;rft.au=Hermann+Haken%2C+Hans+Christoph+Wolf&amp;rft.btitle=Atom-+und+Quantenphysik+-+Einf%C3%BChrung+in+die+experimentellen+und+theoretischen+Grundlagen&amp;rft.date=2000&amp;rft.edition=7.&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=3540674535&amp;rft.pages=172&amp;rft.place=Berlin+Heidelberg+New+York&amp;rft.pub=Springer-Verlag" style="display:none">&nbsp;</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Kuypers277-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Kuypers277_8-0">a</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Kuypers277_8-1">b</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text">Friedhelm Kuypers: <cite style="font-style:italic">Quantenmechanik - Lehr- und Arbeitsbuch</cite>. 1. Auflage. WILEY-VCH, Weinheim 2020, ISBN 978-3-527-41380-5, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em">&nbsp;</span>277</span>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Atomorbital&amp;rft.au=Friedhelm+Kuypers&amp;rft.btitle=Quantenmechanik+-+Lehr-+und+Arbeitsbuch&amp;rft.date=2020&amp;rft.edition=1.&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=9783527413805&amp;rft.pages=277&amp;rft.place=Weinheim&amp;rft.pub=WILEY-VCH" style="display:none">&nbsp;</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-9">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hermann Haken, Hans Christoph Wolf: <cite style="font-style:italic">Atom- und Quantenphysik - Einführung in die experimentellen und theoretischen Grundlagen</cite>. 7. Auflage. Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg New York 2000, ISBN 3-540-67453-5, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em">&nbsp;</span>175</span>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Atomorbital&amp;rft.au=Hermann+Haken%2C+Hans+Christoph+Wolf&amp;rft.btitle=Atom-+und+Quantenphysik+-+Einf%C3%BChrung+in+die+experimentellen+und+theoretischen+Grundlagen&amp;rft.date=2000&amp;rft.edition=7.&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=3540674535&amp;rft.pages=175&amp;rft.place=Berlin+Heidelberg+New+York&amp;rft.pub=Springer-Verlag" style="display:none">&nbsp;</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-10">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Friedhelm Kuypers: <cite style="font-style:italic">Quantenmechanik - Lehr- und Arbeitsbuch</cite>. 1. Auflage. WILEY-VCH, Weinheim 2020, ISBN 978-3-527-41380-5, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em">&nbsp;</span>455</span>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Atomorbital&amp;rft.au=Friedhelm+Kuypers&amp;rft.btitle=Quantenmechanik+-+Lehr-+und+Arbeitsbuch&amp;rft.date=2020&amp;rft.edition=1.&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=9783527413805&amp;rft.pages=455&amp;rft.place=Weinheim&amp;rft.pub=WILEY-VCH" style="display:none">&nbsp;</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-11">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Friedhelm Kuypers: <cite style="font-style:italic">Quantenmechanik - Lehr- und Arbeitsbuch</cite>. 1. Auflage. WILEY-VCH, Weinheim 2020, ISBN 978-3-527-41380-5, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em">&nbsp;</span>473</span>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Atomorbital&amp;rft.au=Friedhelm+Kuypers&amp;rft.btitle=Quantenmechanik+-+Lehr-+und+Arbeitsbuch&amp;rft.date=2020&amp;rft.edition=1.&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=9783527413805&amp;rft.pages=473&amp;rft.place=Weinheim&amp;rft.pub=WILEY-VCH" style="display:none">&nbsp;</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-12">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Friedhelm Kuypers: <cite style="font-style:italic">Quantenmechanik - Lehr- und Arbeitsbuch</cite>. 1. Auflage. WILEY-VCH, Weinheim 2020, ISBN 978-3-527-41380-5, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em">&nbsp;</span>436</span>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Atomorbital&amp;rft.au=Friedhelm+Kuypers&amp;rft.btitle=Quantenmechanik+-+Lehr-+und+Arbeitsbuch&amp;rft.date=2020&amp;rft.edition=1.&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=9783527413805&amp;rft.pages=436&amp;rft.place=Weinheim&amp;rft.pub=WILEY-VCH" style="display:none">&nbsp;</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-13">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hermann Haken, Hans Christoph Wolf: <cite style="font-style:italic">Atom- und Quantenphysik - Einführung in die experimentellen und theoretischen Grundlagen</cite>. 7. Auflage. Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg New York 2000, ISBN 3-540-67453-5, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em">&nbsp;</span>171</span>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Atomorbital&amp;rft.au=Hermann+Haken%2C+Hans+Christoph+Wolf&amp;rft.btitle=Atom-+und+Quantenphysik+-+Einf%C3%BChrung+in+die+experimentellen+und+theoretischen+Grundlagen&amp;rft.date=2000&amp;rft.edition=7.&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=3540674535&amp;rft.pages=171&amp;rft.place=Berlin+Heidelberg+New+York&amp;rft.pub=Springer-Verlag" style="display:none">&nbsp;</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-14">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Friedhelm Kuypers: <cite style="font-style:italic">Quantenmechanik - Lehr- und Arbeitsbuch</cite>. 1. Auflage. WILEY-VCH, Weinheim 2020, ISBN 978-3-527-41380-5, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em">&nbsp;</span>273</span>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Atomorbital&amp;rft.au=Friedhelm+Kuypers&amp;rft.btitle=Quantenmechanik+-+Lehr-+und+Arbeitsbuch&amp;rft.date=2020&amp;rft.edition=1.&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=9783527413805&amp;rft.pages=273&amp;rft.place=Weinheim&amp;rft.pub=WILEY-VCH" style="display:none">&nbsp;</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Haken175-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Haken175_15-0">a</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Haken175_15-1">b</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text">Hermann Haken, Hans Christoph Wolf: <cite style="font-style:italic">Atom- und Quantenphysik - Einführung in die experimentellen und theoretischen Grundlagen</cite>. 7. Auflage. Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg New York 2000, ISBN 3-540-67453-5, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em">&nbsp;</span>175</span>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Atomorbital&amp;rft.au=Hermann+Haken%2C+Hans+Christoph+Wolf&amp;rft.btitle=Atom-+und+Quantenphysik+-+Einf%C3%BChrung+in+die+experimentellen+und+theoretischen+Grundlagen&amp;rft.date=2000&amp;rft.edition=7.&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=3540674535&amp;rft.pages=175&amp;rft.place=Berlin+Heidelberg+New+York&amp;rft.pub=Springer-Verlag" style="display:none">&nbsp;</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-16">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Steven Weinberg: <cite style="font-style:italic">Quantenmechanik - Eine Einführung des Nobelpreisträgers</cite>. Pearson Studium, München 2015, ISBN 978-3-86894-263-7, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em">&nbsp;</span>64</span>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Atomorbital&amp;rft.au=Steven+Weinberg&amp;rft.btitle=Quantenmechanik+-+Eine+Einf%C3%BChrung+des+Nobelpreistr%C3%A4gers&amp;rft.date=2015&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=9783868942637&amp;rft.pages=64&amp;rft.place=M%C3%BCnchen&amp;rft.pub=Pearson+Studium" style="display:none">&nbsp;</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-17">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Gerhard Franz: <cite style="font-style:italic">Quantenphysik - Quantenmechanik</cite>. 1. Auflage. de Gruyter, Oldenbourg 2024, ISBN 978-3-11-123798-5, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em">&nbsp;</span>570</span>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Atomorbital&amp;rft.au=Gerhard+Franz&amp;rft.btitle=Quantenphysik+-+Quantenmechanik&amp;rft.date=2024&amp;rft.edition=1.&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=9783111237985&amp;rft.pages=570&amp;rft.place=Oldenbourg&amp;rft.pub=de+Gruyter" style="display:none">&nbsp;</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-18">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hermann Haken, Hans Christoph Wolf: <cite style="font-style:italic">Atom- und Quantenphysik - Einführung in die experimentellen und theoretischen Grundlagen</cite>. 7. Auflage. Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg New York 2000, ISBN 3-540-67453-5, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em">&nbsp;</span>181</span>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Atomorbital&amp;rft.au=Hermann+Haken%2C+Hans+Christoph+Wolf&amp;rft.btitle=Atom-+und+Quantenphysik+-+Einf%C3%BChrung+in+die+experimentellen+und+theoretischen+Grundlagen&amp;rft.date=2000&amp;rft.edition=7.&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=3540674535&amp;rft.pages=181&amp;rft.place=Berlin+Heidelberg+New+York&amp;rft.pub=Springer-Verlag" style="display:none">&nbsp;</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-19">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Friedhelm Kuypers: <cite style="font-style:italic">Quantenmechanik - Lehr- und Arbeitsbuch</cite>. 1. Auflage. WILEY-VCH, Weinheim 2020, ISBN 978-3-527-41380-5, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em">&nbsp;</span>285</span>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Atomorbital&amp;rft.au=Friedhelm+Kuypers&amp;rft.btitle=Quantenmechanik+-+Lehr-+und+Arbeitsbuch&amp;rft.date=2020&amp;rft.edition=1.&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=9783527413805&amp;rft.pages=285&amp;rft.place=Weinheim&amp;rft.pub=WILEY-VCH" style="display:none">&nbsp;</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-20">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Friedhelm Kuypers: <cite style="font-style:italic">Quantenmechanik - Lehr- und Arbeitsbuch</cite>. 1. Auflage. WILEY-VCH, Weinheim 2020, ISBN 978-3-527-41380-5, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em">&nbsp;</span>283</span>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Atomorbital&amp;rft.au=Friedhelm+Kuypers&amp;rft.btitle=Quantenmechanik+-+Lehr-+und+Arbeitsbuch&amp;rft.date=2020&amp;rft.edition=1.&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=9783527413805&amp;rft.pages=283&amp;rft.place=Weinheim&amp;rft.pub=WILEY-VCH" style="display:none">&nbsp;</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-21">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Friedhelm Kuypers: <cite style="font-style:italic">Quantenmechanik - Lehr- und Arbeitsbuch</cite>. 1. Auflage. WILEY-VCH, Weinheim 2020, ISBN 978-3-527-41380-5, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em">&nbsp;</span>282</span>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Atomorbital&amp;rft.au=Friedhelm+Kuypers&amp;rft.btitle=Quantenmechanik+-+Lehr-+und+Arbeitsbuch&amp;rft.date=2020&amp;rft.edition=1.&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=9783527413805&amp;rft.pages=282&amp;rft.place=Weinheim&amp;rft.pub=WILEY-VCH" style="display:none">&nbsp;</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-22">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Friedhelm Kuypers: <cite style="font-style:italic">Quantenmechanik - Lehr- und Arbeitsbuch</cite>. 1. Auflage. WILEY-VCH, Weinheim 2020, ISBN 978-3-527-41380-5, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em">&nbsp;</span>436</span>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Atomorbital&amp;rft.au=Friedhelm+Kuypers&amp;rft.btitle=Quantenmechanik+-+Lehr-+und+Arbeitsbuch&amp;rft.date=2020&amp;rft.edition=1.&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=9783527413805&amp;rft.pages=436&amp;rft.place=Weinheim&amp;rft.pub=WILEY-VCH" style="display:none">&nbsp;</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-23">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Gerhard Franz: <cite style="font-style:italic">Quantenphysik - Quantenmechanik</cite>. 1. Auflage. de Gruyter, Oldenbourg 2024, ISBN 978-3-11-123798-5, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em">&nbsp;</span>519</span>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Atomorbital&amp;rft.au=Gerhard+Franz&amp;rft.btitle=Quantenphysik+-+Quantenmechanik&amp;rft.date=2024&amp;rft.edition=1.&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=9783111237985&amp;rft.pages=519&amp;rft.place=Oldenbourg&amp;rft.pub=de+Gruyter" style="display:none">&nbsp;</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-24">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Friedhelm Kuypers: <cite style="font-style:italic">Quantenmechanik - Lehr- und Arbeitsbuch</cite>. 1. Auflage. WILEY-VCH, Weinheim 2020, ISBN 978-3-527-41380-5, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em">&nbsp;</span>372</span>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Atomorbital&amp;rft.au=Friedhelm+Kuypers&amp;rft.btitle=Quantenmechanik+-+Lehr-+und+Arbeitsbuch&amp;rft.date=2020&amp;rft.edition=1.&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=9783527413805&amp;rft.pages=372&amp;rft.place=Weinheim&amp;rft.pub=WILEY-VCH" style="display:none">&nbsp;</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-25">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hermann Haken, Hans Christoph Wolf: <cite style="font-style:italic">Atom- und Quantenphysik - Einführung in die experimentellen und theoretischen Grundlagen</cite>. 7. Auflage. Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg New York 2000, ISBN 3-540-67453-5, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em">&nbsp;</span>191</span>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Atomorbital&amp;rft.au=Hermann+Haken%2C+Hans+Christoph+Wolf&amp;rft.btitle=Atom-+und+Quantenphysik+-+Einf%C3%BChrung+in+die+experimentellen+und+theoretischen+Grundlagen&amp;rft.date=2000&amp;rft.edition=7.&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=3540674535&amp;rft.pages=191&amp;rft.place=Berlin+Heidelberg+New+York&amp;rft.pub=Springer-Verlag" style="display:none">&nbsp;</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-26">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hermann Haken, Hans Christoph Wolf: <cite style="font-style:italic">Atom- und Quantenphysik - Einführung in die experimentellen und theoretischen Grundlagen</cite>. 7. Auflage. Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg New York 2000, ISBN 3-540-67453-5, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em">&nbsp;</span>195</span>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Atomorbital&amp;rft.au=Hermann+Haken%2C+Hans+Christoph+Wolf&amp;rft.btitle=Atom-+und+Quantenphysik+-+Einf%C3%BChrung+in+die+experimentellen+und+theoretischen+Grundlagen&amp;rft.date=2000&amp;rft.edition=7.&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=3540674535&amp;rft.pages=195&amp;rft.place=Berlin+Heidelberg+New+York&amp;rft.pub=Springer-Verlag" style="display:none">&nbsp;</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-27">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hermann Haken, Hans Christoph Wolf: <cite style="font-style:italic">Atom- und Quantenphysik - Einführung in die experimentellen und theoretischen Grundlagen</cite>. 7. Auflage. Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg New York 2000, ISBN 3-540-67453-5, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em">&nbsp;</span>199</span>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Atomorbital&amp;rft.au=Hermann+Haken%2C+Hans+Christoph+Wolf&amp;rft.btitle=Atom-+und+Quantenphysik+-+Einf%C3%BChrung+in+die+experimentellen+und+theoretischen+Grundlagen&amp;rft.date=2000&amp;rft.edition=7.&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=3540674535&amp;rft.pages=199&amp;rft.place=Berlin+Heidelberg+New+York&amp;rft.pub=Springer-Verlag" style="display:none">&nbsp;</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-28">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Friedhelm Kuypers: <cite style="font-style:italic">Quantenmechanik - Lehr- und Arbeitsbuch</cite>. 1. Auflage. WILEY-VCH, Weinheim 2020, ISBN 978-3-527-41380-5, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em">&nbsp;</span>270</span>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Atomorbital&amp;rft.au=Friedhelm+Kuypers&amp;rft.btitle=Quantenmechanik+-+Lehr-+und+Arbeitsbuch&amp;rft.date=2020&amp;rft.edition=1.&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=9783527413805&amp;rft.pages=270&amp;rft.place=Weinheim&amp;rft.pub=WILEY-VCH" style="display:none">&nbsp;</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-29">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Steven Weinberg: <cite style="font-style:italic">Quantenmechanik - Eine Einführung des Nobelpreisträgers</cite>. Pearson Studium, München 2015, ISBN 978-3-86894-263-7, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em">&nbsp;</span>53</span>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Atomorbital&amp;rft.au=Steven+Weinberg&amp;rft.btitle=Quantenmechanik+-+Eine+Einf%C3%BChrung+des+Nobelpreistr%C3%A4gers&amp;rft.date=2015&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=9783868942637&amp;rft.pages=53&amp;rft.place=M%C3%BCnchen&amp;rft.pub=Pearson+Studium" style="display:none">&nbsp;</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-30">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Steven Weinberg: <cite style="font-style:italic">Quantenmechanik - Eine Einführung des Nobelpreisträgers</cite>. Pearson Studium, München 2015, ISBN 978-3-86894-263-7, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em">&nbsp;</span>56</span>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Atomorbital&amp;rft.au=Steven+Weinberg&amp;rft.btitle=Quantenmechanik+-+Eine+Einf%C3%BChrung+des+Nobelpreistr%C3%A4gers&amp;rft.date=2015&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=9783868942637&amp;rft.pages=56&amp;rft.place=M%C3%BCnchen&amp;rft.pub=Pearson+Studium" style="display:none">&nbsp;</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-31">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Klaus Bethge, Gernot Gruber: <cite style="font-style:italic">Physik der Atome und Moleküle - Eine Einführung</cite>. 1. Auflage. WILEY-VCH, Weinheim 1990, ISBN 3-527-26933-9, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em">&nbsp;</span>197</span>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Atomorbital&amp;rft.au=Klaus+Bethge%2C+Gernot+Gruber&amp;rft.btitle=Physik+der+Atome+und+Molek%C3%BCle+-+Eine+Einf%C3%BChrung&amp;rft.date=1990&amp;rft.edition=1.&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=3527269339&amp;rft.pages=197&amp;rft.place=Weinheim&amp;rft.pub=WILEY-VCH" style="display:none">&nbsp;</span> </span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-32">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Die Darstellung zeigt ein Volumen, auf dessen Oberfläche die Aufenthaltswahrscheinlichkeitsdichte <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle |\psi ({\vec {r}})|^{2}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo stretchy="false">|</mo>
</mrow>
<mi>ψ<!-- ψ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>r</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">→<!-- → --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo stretchy="false">|</mo>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle |\psi ({\vec {r}})|^{2}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/1f0223d0e4b6c5eaf1357117b8d140ef2b4f2439.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:6.893ex; height:3.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle |\psi ({\vec {r}})|^{2}}" loading="lazy"></span> konstant ist. Die Farben kodieren die komplexe Phase der Wellenfunktion.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-33">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Gerd Wedler, Hans-Joachim Freund: <cite style="font-style:italic">Lehr- und Arbeitsbuch der Physikalischen Chemie</cite>. 7. Auflage. WILEY-VCH, Weinheim 2018, ISBN 978-3-527-34611-0, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em">&nbsp;</span>420</span>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Atomorbital&amp;rft.au=Gerd+Wedler%2C+Hans-Joachim+Freund&amp;rft.btitle=Lehr-+und+Arbeitsbuch+der+Physikalischen+Chemie&amp;rft.date=2018&amp;rft.edition=7.&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=9783527346110&amp;rft.pages=420&amp;rft.place=Weinheim&amp;rft.pub=WILEY-VCH" style="display:none">&nbsp;</span> </span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Wedler421-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Wedler421_34-0">a</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Wedler421_34-1">b</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text">Gerd Wedler, Hans-Joachim Freund: <cite style="font-style:italic">Lehr- und Arbeitsbuch der Physikalischen Chemie</cite>. 7. Auflage. WILEY-VCH, Weinheim 2018, ISBN 978-3-527-34611-0, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em">&nbsp;</span>421</span>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Atomorbital&amp;rft.au=Gerd+Wedler%2C+Hans-Joachim+Freund&amp;rft.btitle=Lehr-+und+Arbeitsbuch+der+Physikalischen+Chemie&amp;rft.date=2018&amp;rft.edition=7.&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=9783527346110&amp;rft.pages=421&amp;rft.place=Weinheim&amp;rft.pub=WILEY-VCH" style="display:none">&nbsp;</span> </span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-35">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Friedhelm Kuypers: <cite style="font-style:italic">Quantenmechanik - Lehr- und Arbeitsbuch</cite>. 1. Auflage. WILEY-VCH, Weinheim 2020, ISBN 978-3-527-41380-5, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em">&nbsp;</span>459</span>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Atomorbital&amp;rft.au=Friedhelm+Kuypers&amp;rft.btitle=Quantenmechanik+-+Lehr-+und+Arbeitsbuch&amp;rft.date=2020&amp;rft.edition=1.&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=9783527413805&amp;rft.pages=459&amp;rft.place=Weinheim&amp;rft.pub=WILEY-VCH" style="display:none">&nbsp;</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-36">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Friedhelm Kuypers: <cite style="font-style:italic">Quantenmechanik - Lehr- und Arbeitsbuch</cite>. 1. Auflage. WILEY-VCH, Weinheim 2020, ISBN 978-3-527-41380-5, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em">&nbsp;</span>408</span>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Atomorbital&amp;rft.au=Friedhelm+Kuypers&amp;rft.btitle=Quantenmechanik+-+Lehr-+und+Arbeitsbuch&amp;rft.date=2020&amp;rft.edition=1.&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=9783527413805&amp;rft.pages=408&amp;rft.place=Weinheim&amp;rft.pub=WILEY-VCH" style="display:none">&nbsp;</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-37">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Friedhelm Kuypers: <cite style="font-style:italic">Quantenmechanik - Lehr- und Arbeitsbuch</cite>. 1. Auflage. WILEY-VCH, Weinheim 2020, ISBN 978-3-527-41380-5, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em">&nbsp;</span>442</span>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Atomorbital&amp;rft.au=Friedhelm+Kuypers&amp;rft.btitle=Quantenmechanik+-+Lehr-+und+Arbeitsbuch&amp;rft.date=2020&amp;rft.edition=1.&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=9783527413805&amp;rft.pages=442&amp;rft.place=Weinheim&amp;rft.pub=WILEY-VCH" style="display:none">&nbsp;</span></span>
</li>
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